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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 173        ),
 174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 188        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 189        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 190        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 193        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 194        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 195        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 196        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 197        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 198        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 199        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 200        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 202        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 205    }
 206
 207    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 208    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 209    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 210    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 211
 212    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 213    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 214    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 215
 216    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 217    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 218
 219    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 220    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 221
 222    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 223    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 224
 225    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 226    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 227
 228    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 229    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 230
 231    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 232    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 233
 234    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 235    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 236
 237    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 238    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 241    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 242
 243    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 244    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 245
 246    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 247    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 248
 249    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 250    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 251
 252    # Whether join hints should be generated
 253    JOIN_HINTS = True
 254
 255    # Whether table hints should be generated
 256    TABLE_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether query hints should be generated
 259    QUERY_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 262    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 263
 264    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 265    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 266
 267    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 268    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 269
 270    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 271    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 272
 273    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 274    RETURNING_END = True
 275
 276    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 277    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 278
 279    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 280    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 281
 282    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 283    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 284
 285    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 286    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 287
 288    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 289    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 290    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 291    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 292
 293    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 294    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 295
 296    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 297    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 298
 299    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 300    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 301
 302    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 303    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 304
 305    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 306    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 307
 308    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 309    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 310
 311    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 312    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 313
 314    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 315    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 316
 317    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 318    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 319
 320    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 321    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 322
 323    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 324    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 325
 326    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 327    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 328
 329    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 330    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 331
 332    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 333    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 334
 335    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 336    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 337
 338    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 339    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 340
 341    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 342    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 343
 344    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 345    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 346
 347    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 348    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 351    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 352
 353    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 354    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 355
 356    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 357    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 358
 359    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 360    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 361
 362    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 364
 365    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 366    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 367
 368    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 369    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 370    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 371
 372    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 373    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 374
 375    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 376    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 377
 378    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 380
 381    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 382    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 383
 384    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 385    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 386
 387    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 388    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 389
 390    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 391    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 392    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 393    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 394
 395    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 396    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 397
 398    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 399    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 400
 401    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 402    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 403
 404    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 405    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 406
 407    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 409
 410    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 411    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 412
 413    # The HEX function name
 414    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 415
 416    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 417    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 418
 419    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 420    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 421
 422    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 423    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 424
 425    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 426    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 427
 428    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 429    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 430
 431    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 432    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 433
 434    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 435    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 436
 437    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 438        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 448    }
 449
 450    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 451        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 452        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 453        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 454        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 455        "DAYS": "DAY",
 456        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 457        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 458        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 459        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 460    }
 461
 462    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 463        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 464        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 465        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 466        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 467            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 468            if e.args.get("windows")
 469            else ""
 470        ),
 471        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 472    }
 473
 474    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 475
 476    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 477
 478    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 479    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 480
 481    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 482        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 488        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 490        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 497        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 510        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 511        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 513        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 523        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 525        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 526        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 529        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 532        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 535        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 550        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 566        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 567        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569    }
 570
 571    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 572    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 573
 574    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 575    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 576        exp.Command,
 577        exp.Create,
 578        exp.Delete,
 579        exp.Drop,
 580        exp.From,
 581        exp.Insert,
 582        exp.Join,
 583        exp.MultitableInserts,
 584        exp.Select,
 585        exp.SetOperation,
 586        exp.Update,
 587        exp.Where,
 588        exp.With,
 589    )
 590
 591    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 592    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 593        exp.Binary,
 594        exp.SetOperation,
 595    )
 596
 597    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 598    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 599        exp.Column,
 600        exp.Literal,
 601        exp.Neg,
 602        exp.Paren,
 603    )
 604
 605    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 606        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 609        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 610    }
 611
 612    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 613    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 614
 615    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 616
 617    __slots__ = (
 618        "pretty",
 619        "identify",
 620        "normalize",
 621        "pad",
 622        "_indent",
 623        "normalize_functions",
 624        "unsupported_level",
 625        "max_unsupported",
 626        "leading_comma",
 627        "max_text_width",
 628        "comments",
 629        "dialect",
 630        "unsupported_messages",
 631        "_escaped_quote_end",
 632        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 633        "_next_name",
 634        "_identifier_start",
 635        "_identifier_end",
 636    )
 637
 638    def __init__(
 639        self,
 640        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 641        identify: str | bool = False,
 642        normalize: bool = False,
 643        pad: int = 2,
 644        indent: int = 2,
 645        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 646        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 647        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 648        leading_comma: bool = False,
 649        max_text_width: int = 80,
 650        comments: bool = True,
 651        dialect: DialectType = None,
 652    ):
 653        import sqlglot
 654        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 655
 656        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 657        self.identify = identify
 658        self.normalize = normalize
 659        self.pad = pad
 660        self._indent = indent
 661        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 662        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 663        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 664        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 665        self.comments = comments
 666        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 667
 668        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 669        self.normalize_functions = (
 670            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 671        )
 672
 673        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 674        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 675            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 676        )
 677        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 678
 679        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 680
 681        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 682        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 683
 684    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 685        """
 686        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 687
 688        Args:
 689            expression: The syntax tree.
 690            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 691                it is safer to copy.
 692
 693        Returns:
 694            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 695        """
 696        if copy:
 697            expression = expression.copy()
 698
 699        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 700
 701        self.unsupported_messages = []
 702        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 703
 704        if self.pretty:
 705            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 706
 707        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 708            return sql
 709
 710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 711            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 712                logger.warning(msg)
 713        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 714            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 715
 716        return sql
 717
 718    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 719        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 720        if (
 721            not expression.parent
 722            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 723            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 724        ):
 725            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 726
 727            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 728
 729        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 730            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 731
 732            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 733
 734        return expression
 735
 736    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 737        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 738            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 739        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 740
 741    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 742        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 743
 744    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 745        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 746
 747    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 748        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 749        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 750        return comment
 751
 752    def maybe_comment(
 753        self,
 754        sql: str,
 755        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 756        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 757        separated: bool = False,
 758    ) -> str:
 759        comments = (
 760            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 761            if self.comments
 762            else None
 763        )
 764
 765        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 766            return sql
 767
 768        comments_sql = " ".join(
 769            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 770        )
 771
 772        if not comments_sql:
 773            return sql
 774
 775        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 776
 777        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 778            return (
 779                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 780                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 781                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 782            )
 783
 784        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 785
 786    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 787        this_sql = (
 788            self.sql(expression)
 789            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 790            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        )
 792        if not this_sql:
 793            return "()"
 794
 795        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 796        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 797
 798    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 799        original = self.identify
 800        self.identify = False
 801        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 802        self.identify = original
 803        return result
 804
 805    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 806        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 807            return name.upper()
 808        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 809            return name.lower()
 810        return name
 811
 812    def indent(
 813        self,
 814        sql: str,
 815        level: int = 0,
 816        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 817        skip_first: bool = False,
 818        skip_last: bool = False,
 819    ) -> str:
 820        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 821            return sql
 822
 823        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 824        lines = sql.split("\n")
 825
 826        return "\n".join(
 827            (
 828                line
 829                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 830                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 831            )
 832            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 833        )
 834
 835    def sql(
 836        self,
 837        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 838        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 839        comment: bool = True,
 840    ) -> str:
 841        if not expression:
 842            return ""
 843
 844        if isinstance(expression, str):
 845            return expression
 846
 847        if key:
 848            value = expression.args.get(key)
 849            if value:
 850                return self.sql(value)
 851            return ""
 852
 853        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 854
 855        if callable(transform):
 856            sql = transform(self, expression)
 857        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 858            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 859
 860            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 861                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 862            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 863                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 864            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 865                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 866            else:
 867                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 868        else:
 869            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 870
 871        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 872
 873    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 874        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 877
 878    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 879        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 880        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        options = expression.args.get("options")
 882        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 883        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 884        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 885        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 886        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 887
 888    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 889        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 890            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 892        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 893
 894    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 895        return ".".join(
 896            self.sql(part)
 897            for part in (
 898                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 899                expression.args.get("db"),
 900                expression.args.get("table"),
 901                expression.args.get("this"),
 902            )
 903            if part
 904        )
 905
 906    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 907        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 908
 909        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 910            join_mark = ""
 911            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 912
 913        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 914
 915    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 918        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 919        return f"{position}{this}"
 920
 921    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 922        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 924        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 925        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 926        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 927        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 928        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 929        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 930
 931        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 932            kind = ""
 933
 934        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 935
 936    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 938        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 939        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 940
 941    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 944            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 945        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 946            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 947        else:
 948            persisted = ""
 949        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 950
 951    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 952        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 953
 954    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 955        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 956            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 957        else:
 958            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959
 960        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 961
 962    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 963        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 964    ) -> str:
 965        this = ""
 966        if expression.this is not None:
 967            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 968            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 969
 970        start = expression.args.get("start")
 971        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 972        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 973        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 974        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 975        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 976        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 977        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 978        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 979        cycle_sql = ""
 980
 981        if cycle is not None:
 982            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 983            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 984
 985        sequence_opts = ""
 986        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 987            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 988            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 989
 990        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 991        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 992
 993        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 994
 995    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 996        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 997    ) -> str:
 998        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 999        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1000        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1001
1002    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1003        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1004    ) -> str:
1005        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1006
1007    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1008        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1009
1010    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1011        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1012
1013    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1015        if desc is not None:
1016            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1017        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1018
1019    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1022        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1023        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1024        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1025        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1026        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1027        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1028
1029    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1030        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1031
1032    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1033        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1034        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1035        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1036        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1037
1038        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1039
1040        properties_sql = ""
1041        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1042            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1043        ):
1044            properties_sql = self.sql(
1045                exp.Properties(
1046                    expressions=[
1047                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1049                    ]
1050                )
1051            )
1052
1053            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1054                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1055            elif not self.pretty:
1056                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1057                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1058
1059        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1060        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1061
1062        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1063        if expression_sql:
1064            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1065
1066            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1067                postalias_props_sql = ""
1068                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1069                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1070                        exp.Properties(
1071                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1072                        ),
1073                        wrapped=False,
1074                    )
1075                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1076                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1077
1078        postindex_props_sql = ""
1079        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1080            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1081                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1082                wrapped=False,
1083                prefix=" ",
1084            )
1085
1086        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1087        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1088        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1089
1090        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1091        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1092        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1093
1094        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1095        if clustered is None:
1096            clustered_sql = ""
1097        elif clustered:
1098            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1099        else:
1100            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1101
1102        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1103        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1104            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1105                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1106                sep=" ",
1107                prefix=" ",
1108                wrapped=False,
1109            )
1110
1111        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1112
1113        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1114        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1115            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1116                exp.Properties(
1117                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1118                ),
1119                sep=" ",
1120                prefix=" ",
1121                wrapped=False,
1122            )
1123
1124        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1125        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1126        no_schema_binding = (
1127            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1128        )
1129
1130        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1131        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1132
1133        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1134        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1135
1136    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1137        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1138        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1139        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1140        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1141        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1142        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1143        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1144        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1145        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1146        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1147
1148        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1149        if cache is None:
1150            cache_str = ""
1151        elif cache is True:
1152            cache_str = " CACHE"
1153        else:
1154            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1155
1156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1157        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1158
1159        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1160
1161    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1163        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1164        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1165        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1166
1167    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1168        style = expression.args.get("style")
1169        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1170        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1171        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1172        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1173
1174    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1175        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1176        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1177
1178    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1179        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1180        if with_:
1181            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1182        return sql
1183
1184    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1185        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1186        recursive = (
1187            "RECURSIVE "
1188            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1189            else ""
1190        )
1191
1192        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1193
1194    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1195        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1196
1197        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1198        if materialized is False:
1199            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1200        elif materialized:
1201            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1202
1203        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1204
1205    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1206        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1208        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1209
1210        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1211            columns = ""
1212            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1213
1214        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1215            alias = self._next_name()
1216
1217        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1218
1219    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1221        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1222            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1223        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1224
1225    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1227        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1228            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1229        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1230
1231    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1234            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1235        return this
1236
1237    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1240
1241        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1242            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1243            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1244        else:
1245            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1246            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1247
1248        if escape:
1249            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1250            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1251        else:
1252            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1253            escape_sql = ""
1254
1255        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1256            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1257
1258        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1259
1260    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1261        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1262        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1263
1264    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1267        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1268        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1269
1270    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1271        nested = ""
1272        values = ""
1273        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274
1275        type_value = expression.this
1276        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1277            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1278        else:
1279            type_sql = (
1280                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1281                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1282                else type_value
1283            )
1284
1285        if interior:
1286            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1287                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1288                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1289                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1290                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1291                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1292            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1293                nested = f" {interior}"
1294            else:
1295                nested = f"({interior})"
1296
1297        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1298        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1299            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1301        ):
1302            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1303
1304        return type_sql
1305
1306    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1307        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1308        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1309        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1310        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1311
1312    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1315        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1316        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1317        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1318        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1319        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1320        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1321        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1322        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1323        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1324        if self.RETURNING_END:
1325            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1326        else:
1327            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1328        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1329
1330    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1332        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1333        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1334        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1335        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1336        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1337        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1338        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1339        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1340        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1341        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1342        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1343        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1344        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1345        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1346
1347    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1348        op_type = type(expression)
1349        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1350
1351        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1352        if (
1353            distinct is False
1354            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1355            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1356        ):
1357            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1358
1359        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1360
1361        if distinct is None:
1362            distinct = default_distinct
1363            if distinct is None:
1364                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1365
1366        if distinct is default_distinct:
1367            kind = ""
1368        else:
1369            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1370
1371        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1372        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1373
1374    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1375        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1376            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1377            order = expression.args.get("order")
1378
1379            if limit or order:
1380                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1381
1382                if limit:
1383                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1384                if order:
1385                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1386                return self.sql(select)
1387
1388        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1389        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1390
1391        while stack:
1392            node = stack.pop()
1393
1394            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1395                stack.append(node.expression)
1396                stack.append(
1397                    self.maybe_comment(
1398                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1399                    )
1400                )
1401                stack.append(node.this)
1402            else:
1403                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1404
1405        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1406        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1407        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1408
1409    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1410        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1411        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1412        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1413        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1414        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1415            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1416        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1417        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1418
1419    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1420        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1421            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1422            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1423            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1424
1425        agg = expression.this
1426        agg_arg = agg.this
1427        cond = expression.expression.this
1428        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1429        return self.sql(agg)
1430
1431    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1432        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1433            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1434            return ""
1435
1436        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1437
1438    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1439        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1440        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1441        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1442        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1443        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1444        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1445        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1446        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1447        if include:
1448            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1449        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1450        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1451        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1452        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1453        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1454        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1455
1456        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1457
1458    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1459        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1460        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1461        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1462        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1464        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1465        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1466
1467        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1468
1469        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1470        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1471
1472    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1473        text = expression.name
1474        lower = text.lower()
1475        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1476        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1477        if (
1478            expression.quoted
1479            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1480            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1481            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1482        ):
1483            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1484        return text
1485
1486    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1487        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1488        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1489            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1490
1491        return text
1492
1493    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1494        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1495        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1496            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1497        return text
1498
1499    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1500        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1501        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1502        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1503        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1504        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1505
1506    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1507        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1508        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1509
1510    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1511        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1512
1513    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1514        root_properties = []
1515        with_properties = []
1516
1517        for p in expression.expressions:
1518            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1519            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1520                with_properties.append(p)
1521            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1522                root_properties.append(p)
1523
1524        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1525        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1526
1527        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1528            with_props = " " + with_props
1529
1530        return root_props + with_props
1531
1532    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1533        if properties.expressions:
1534            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1535        return ""
1536
1537    def properties(
1538        self,
1539        properties: exp.Properties,
1540        prefix: str = "",
1541        sep: str = ", ",
1542        suffix: str = "",
1543        wrapped: bool = True,
1544    ) -> str:
1545        if properties.expressions:
1546            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1547            if expressions:
1548                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1549                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1550        return ""
1551
1552    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1553        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1554
1555    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1556        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1557        for p in properties.expressions:
1558            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1559            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1560                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1561            else:
1562                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1563
1564        return properties_locs
1565
1566    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1567        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1568            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1570
1571    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1572        property_cls = expression.__class__
1573        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1574            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1575
1576        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1577        if not property_name:
1578            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1579
1580        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1581
1582    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1583        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1584            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1585            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1586
1587            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1588            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1589                like = f"({like})"
1590
1591            return like
1592
1593        if expression.expressions:
1594            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1595
1596        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1597        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1598
1599    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1600        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1601        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1602        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1603
1604    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1605        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1606        local = expression.args.get("local")
1607        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1608        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1609        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1610        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1611        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1612
1613    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1614        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1616        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1617
1618    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1619        if expression.args.get("default"):
1620            property = "DEFAULT"
1621        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1622            property = "ON"
1623        else:
1624            property = "OFF"
1625        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1626
1627    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1628        if expression.args.get("no"):
1629            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1630        if expression.args.get("default"):
1631            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1632
1633        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1634        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1635
1636    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1637        default = expression.args.get("default")
1638        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1639        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1640        if default or minimum or maximum:
1641            if default:
1642                prop = "DEFAULT"
1643            elif minimum:
1644                prop = "MINIMUM"
1645            else:
1646                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1647            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1648        units = expression.args.get("units")
1649        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1650        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1651
1652    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1653        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1654        always = expression.args.get("always")
1655        default = expression.args.get("default")
1656        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1657        never = expression.args.get("never")
1658
1659        if autotemp is not None:
1660            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1661        elif always:
1662            prop = "ALWAYS"
1663        elif default:
1664            prop = "DEFAULT"
1665        elif manual:
1666            prop = "MANUAL"
1667        elif never:
1668            prop = "NEVER"
1669        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1670
1671    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1672        no = expression.args.get("no")
1673        no = " NO" if no else ""
1674        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1675        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1676        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1677        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1678        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1679
1680    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1681        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1682            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1683        if expression.this:
1684            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1686            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1687
1688        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1689        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1690        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1691
1692    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694
1695        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1696        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1697            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1698        else:
1699            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1700
1701        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1702
1703    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1704        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1705        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1706        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1707        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1708        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1709        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1710        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1711
1712    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1713        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1714        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1715        statistics_sql = ""
1716        if statistics is not None:
1717            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1718        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1719
1720    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1722        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1723        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1724        data_consistency = (
1725            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1726        )
1727        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1728        retention_period = (
1729            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1730        )
1731
1732        if this:
1733            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1734        else:
1735            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1736
1737        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1738
1739        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1740
1741    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1742        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1743        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1744
1745        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1746            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1747        else:
1748            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1749
1750        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1751        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1752        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1753        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1754        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1755        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1756        if is_function:
1757            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1758        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1759
1760        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1761        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1762        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1763        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1764        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1765        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1766        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1767        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1768
1769        if self.RETURNING_END:
1770            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1771        else:
1772            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1773
1774        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1775        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1776        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1777        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1778
1779        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1780        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1781
1782        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1783        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1784
1785    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1786        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1787
1788    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1790        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1792        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1793        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1794
1795    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1796        return expression.name
1797
1798    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1799        return expression.name
1800
1801    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1802        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1803
1804        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1805        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1806
1807        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1808        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1809        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1810
1811        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1812        if expressions:
1813            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1814            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1815
1816        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1817
1818    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1819        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1820
1821    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1822        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1823        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1824        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1825        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1826        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1827        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1828        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1829        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1830        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1831        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1832        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1833        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1834        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1835
1836    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1837        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1838
1839    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1840        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1841        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1842        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1843        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1844
1845    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1848        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1849        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1850
1851    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1852        return ".".join(
1853            self.sql(part)
1854            for part in (
1855                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1856                expression.args.get("db"),
1857                expression.args.get("this"),
1858            )
1859            if part is not None
1860        )
1861
1862    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1863        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1864        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1865        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1866        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1867        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1868        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1869        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1870        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1871
1872        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1873        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1874            sample_pre_alias = sample
1875            sample_post_alias = ""
1876        else:
1877            sample_pre_alias = ""
1878            sample_post_alias = sample
1879
1880        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1881        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1882        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1883        joins = self.indent(
1884            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1885        )
1886        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1887
1888        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1889        if file_format:
1890            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1891            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1892            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1893
1894        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1895        if ordinality:
1896            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1897            alias = ""
1898
1899        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1900        if when:
1901            table = f"{table} {when}"
1902
1903        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1904        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1905
1906        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1907        if rows_from:
1908            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1909
1910        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1911
1912    def tablesample_sql(
1913        self,
1914        expression: exp.TableSample,
1915        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1916    ) -> str:
1917        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1918        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1919        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1920        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1921        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1922        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1923        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1924        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1925        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1926
1927        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1928        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1929            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1930
1931        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1932        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1933            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1934
1935        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1936        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1937            expr = f"({expr})"
1938
1939        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1940
1941    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1942        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1943
1944        if expression.this:
1945            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1946            if not expressions:
1947                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1948
1949            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1950            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1951            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1952            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1953            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1954
1955        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1956        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1957        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1958
1959        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1960
1961        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1962        if include_nulls is not None:
1963            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1964        else:
1965            nulls = ""
1966
1967        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1968        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1969        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1970
1971    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1972        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1973        kind = expression.text("kind")
1974        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1975        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1976
1977    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1978        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1979
1980    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1982        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1983        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1984        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1985        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1986        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1987        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1988        if self.RETURNING_END:
1989            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1990        else:
1991            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1992        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1993        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1994
1995    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1996        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1997
1998        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1999        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2000            args = self.expressions(expression)
2001            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2003            values = (
2004                f"({values})"
2005                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2006                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2007                else values
2008            )
2009            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2010
2011        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2012        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2013        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2014
2015        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2016
2017        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2018            row = tup.expressions
2019
2020            if i == 0 and column_names:
2021                row = [
2022                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2023                ]
2024
2025            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2026
2027        if self.pretty:
2028            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2029            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2030            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2031            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2032            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2033
2034        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2035        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2036        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2037
2038    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2039        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2040
2041    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2042    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2043        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2044        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2045        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2046
2047    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2048        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2049
2050    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2051        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2052        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2053
2054    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2055        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2056        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2057
2058    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2060        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2061
2062    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2063        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2064        if group_by_all is True:
2065            modifier = " ALL"
2066        elif group_by_all is False:
2067            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2068        else:
2069            modifier = ""
2070
2071        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2072
2073        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2074        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2075        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2076
2077        groupings = csv(
2078            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2079            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2080            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2081            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2082            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2083        )
2084
2085        if (
2086            expression.expressions
2087            and groupings
2088            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2089        ):
2090            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2091
2092        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2093
2094    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2095        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2096        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2097
2098    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2099        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2100        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2101        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2102        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2103        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2104        return start + connect
2105
2106    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2107        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2108
2109    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2110        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2111            side = None
2112        else:
2113            side = expression.side
2114
2115        op_sql = " ".join(
2116            op
2117            for op in (
2118                expression.method,
2119                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2120                side,
2121                expression.kind,
2122                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2123            )
2124            if op
2125        )
2126        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2127        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2128        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2129        using = expression.args.get("using")
2130
2131        if not on_sql and using:
2132            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2133
2134        this = expression.this
2135        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2136
2137        if on_sql:
2138            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2139            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2140            if using:
2141                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2142            else:
2143                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2144        elif not op_sql:
2145            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2146                return f" {this_sql}"
2147
2148            return f", {this_sql}"
2149
2150        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2151            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2152
2153        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2154
2155    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2156        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2157        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2158        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2159
2160    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2161        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2162
2163        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2164        if cross_apply is True:
2165            op = "INNER JOIN "
2166        elif cross_apply is False:
2167            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2168        else:
2169            op = ""
2170
2171        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2172
2173    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2175
2176        if expression.args.get("view"):
2177            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2178            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2179            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2180            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2181            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2182            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2183
2184        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2185        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2186        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2187
2188    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190
2191        args = [
2192            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2193            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2194            if e
2195        ]
2196
2197        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2198        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2199        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2200        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2201
2202        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2203
2204    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2206        value = expression.expression
2207        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2209        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2210        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2211
2212    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2213        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2214        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2216        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2217        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2218        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2219        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2220        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2221
2222    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2223        expressions = (
2224            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2225        )
2226        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2227        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2228
2229    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2230        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2231
2232    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2233        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2234            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2235            return ""
2236
2237        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2238        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2239        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2240        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2241
2242        if wait is not None:
2243            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2244                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2245            else:
2246                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2247
2248        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2249
2250    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2251        text = expression.this or ""
2252        if expression.is_string:
2253            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2254        return text
2255
2256    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2257        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2258            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2259            text = "".join(
2260                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2261            )
2262
2263        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2264            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2265        )
2266
2267    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2268        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2269        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2270        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2271        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2272        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2273        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2274        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2275        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2276        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2277        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2278        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2279
2280    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2281        return "NULL"
2282
2283    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2284        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2285
2286    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2288        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2289        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2290        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2291
2292    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2293        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2294        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2295        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2296        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2297        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2298        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2299        interpolated_values = [
2300            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2301            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2302        ]
2303        interpolate = (
2304            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2305        )
2306        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2307
2308    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2309        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2310
2311    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2312        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2313
2314    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2315        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2316
2317    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2318        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2319        asc = not desc
2320
2321        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2322        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2323        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2324        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2325        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2326
2327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2328
2329        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2330        nulls_sort_change = ""
2331        if nulls_first and (
2332            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2333        ):
2334            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2335        elif (
2336            nulls_last
2337            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2338            and not nulls_are_last
2339        ):
2340            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2341
2342        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2343        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2344            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2345            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2346                self.unsupported(
2347                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2348                )
2349                nulls_sort_change = ""
2350            elif (
2351                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2352                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2353                and (
2354                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2355                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2356                )
2357            ):
2358                self.unsupported(
2359                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2360                )
2361                nulls_sort_change = ""
2362            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2363                if expression.this.is_int:
2364                    self.unsupported(
2365                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2366                    )
2367                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2368                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2369                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2370                nulls_sort_change = ""
2371
2372        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2373        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2374
2375        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2376
2377    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2378        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2379        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2380
2381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2382
2383        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2384
2385    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2386        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2387        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2388        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2389        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2390        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2391        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2392        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2393        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2394        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2395        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2396        definition_sqls = [
2397            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2398            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2399        ]
2400        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2401        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2402        body = "".join(
2403            (
2404                partition,
2405                order,
2406                measures,
2407                rows,
2408                after,
2409                pattern,
2410                define,
2411            )
2412        )
2413        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2414        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2415        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2416
2417    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2418        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2419
2420        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2421            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2422        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2423            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2424
2425        return csv(
2426            *sqls,
2427            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2428            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2429            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2430            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2431            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2432            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2433            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2434            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2435            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2436            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2437            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2438            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2439            self.options_modifier(expression),
2440            sep="",
2441        )
2442
2443    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2444        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2445        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2446
2447    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2448        return ""
2449
2450    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2451        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2452    ) -> t.List[str]:
2453        return [
2454            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2455            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2456        ]
2457
2458    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2459        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2460        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2461        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2462
2463    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2464        into = expression.args.get("into")
2465        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2466            into.pop()
2467
2468        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2469        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2470        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2472
2473        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2474        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2475            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2476            limit.pop()
2477        else:
2478            top = ""
2479
2480        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2481
2482        if kind:
2483            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2484                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2485            else:
2486                if kind == "STRUCT":
2487                    expressions = self.expressions(
2488                        sqls=[
2489                            self.sql(
2490                                exp.Struct(
2491                                    expressions=[
2492                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2493                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2494                                        else e
2495                                        for e in expression.expressions
2496                                    ]
2497                                )
2498                            )
2499                        ]
2500                    )
2501                kind = ""
2502
2503        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2504        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2505        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2506        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2507        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2508            expression,
2509            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2510            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2511            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2512        )
2513
2514        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2515
2516        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2517            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2518                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2519            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2520                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2521            else:
2522                table_kind = ""
2523            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2524
2525        return sql
2526
2527    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2530        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2531
2532    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2533        if expression.expressions:
2534            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2535        return ""
2536
2537    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2538        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2539        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2540        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2541        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2542        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2543        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2544        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2545
2546    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2549
2550    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        kind = expression.text("kind")
2553        if kind:
2554            kind = f"{kind}."
2555        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2556
2557    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2558        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2559
2560    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2561        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2562        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2563        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2564        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2565            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2566
2567            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2568            expression.set("sample", None)
2569
2570        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2571        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2572        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2573
2574    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2575        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2576        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2577
2578    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2579        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2580
2581        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2582        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2583
2584        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2585            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2586                alias.append("columns", offset)
2587
2588        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2589            columns = alias.columns
2590            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2591        else:
2592            alias = self.sql(alias)
2593
2594        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2595        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2596            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2597        else:
2598            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2599                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2600            elif offset:
2601                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2602            else:
2603                suffix = alias
2604
2605        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2606
2607    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2608        return ""
2609
2610    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2611        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2612        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2613
2614    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2616        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2617        order = expression.args.get("order")
2618        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2619        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2620        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2621        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2622
2623        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2624
2625        first = expression.args.get("first")
2626        if first is None:
2627            first = ""
2628        else:
2629            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2630
2631        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2632            return f"{this} {alias}"
2633
2634        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2635        return f"{this} ({args})"
2636
2637    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2638        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2639        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2640
2641    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2643        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2644        end = (
2645            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2646            or "CURRENT ROW"
2647        )
2648        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2649
2650    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2653        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2654
2655    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2657        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2658        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2659        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2660
2661    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2662        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2663    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2664        return apply_index_offset(
2665            expression.this,
2666            expression.expressions,
2667            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2668        )
2669
2670    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2671        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2672        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2673        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2674
2675    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2676        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2677
2678    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2680        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2681            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2682                this = self.wrap(this)
2683            return f"ANY{this}"
2684        return f"ANY {this}"
2685
2686    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2687        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2688
2689    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2691        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2692
2693        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2694            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2695            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2696
2697        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2698
2699        if default:
2700            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2701
2702        statements.append("END")
2703
2704        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2705            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2706
2707        return " ".join(statements)
2708
2709    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2712        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2713
2714    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2715        order = expression.args.get("order")
2716        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2717        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2718
2719    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2721        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2722        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2723
2724    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2725        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2726
2727        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2728            func_name = "LTRIM"
2729        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2730            func_name = "RTRIM"
2731        else:
2732            func_name = "TRIM"
2733
2734        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2735
2736    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2737        args = expression.expressions
2738        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2739            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2740
2741        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2742            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2743
2744        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2745            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2746
2747        return args
2748
2749    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2750        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2751
2752        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2753        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2754            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2755
2756        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2757
2758    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2759        return self.func(
2760            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2761        )
2762
2763    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2765        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2766
2767    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2768        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2769        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2770        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2771        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2772        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2773        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2774        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2775        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2776
2777    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2778        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2779        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2780        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2781        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2782
2783    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2784        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2785
2786    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2787        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2788        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2789        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2790
2791    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2793
2794    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2795        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2796
2797        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2798            path = self.escape_str(path)
2799
2800        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2801            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2802
2803        return path
2804
2805    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2806        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2807            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2808            if not callable(transform):
2809                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2810                return ""
2811
2812            return transform(self, expression)
2813
2814        if isinstance(expression, int):
2815            return str(expression)
2816
2817        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2818            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2819            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2820        else:
2821            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2822            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2823
2824        return escaped
2825
2826    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2827        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2828
2829    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2830        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2831        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2832
2833        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2834        if unique_keys is not None:
2835            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2836        else:
2837            unique_keys = ""
2838
2839        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2840        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2841        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2842        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2843
2844        return self.func(
2845            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2846            *expression.expressions,
2847            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2848        )
2849
2850    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2851        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2852
2853    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2854        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2855        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2856        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2857        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2858        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2859        return self.func(
2860            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2861        )
2862
2863    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2866        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2867        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2868        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2869        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2870        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2871        return self.func(
2872            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2873            this,
2874            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2875        )
2876
2877    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2878        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2879        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2880        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2881
2882        if nested_schema:
2883            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2884
2885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2886        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2887        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2888        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2889
2890    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2891        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2892
2893    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2895        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2896        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2897        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2898        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2899        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2900        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2901        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2902        return self.func(
2903            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2904        )
2905
2906    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2909        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2910        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2911        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2912        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2913
2914    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2917        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2918        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2919        with_ = (
2920            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2921            if expressions
2922            else ""
2923        )
2924        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2925
2926    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2927        query = expression.args.get("query")
2928        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2929        field = expression.args.get("field")
2930        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2931
2932        if query:
2933            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2934        elif unnest:
2935            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2936        elif field:
2937            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2938        else:
2939            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2940
2941        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2942
2943    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2944        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2945
2946    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2947        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2948        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2949            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2950        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2951
2952        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2953            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2954            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2955
2956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2957        if this:
2958            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2959            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2960
2961        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2962
2963    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2964        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2965
2966    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2968        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2969        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2970        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2971        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2972        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2973
2974    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2975        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2976        parent = expression.parent
2977        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2978        return self.func(
2979            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2980        )
2981
2982    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2983        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2984        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2985
2986    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2987        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2988        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2989        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2990        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2991
2992    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2993        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2994
2995    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2996        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2997        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2998        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2999
3000    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3001        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3002
3003        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3004        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3005
3006        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3007            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3008        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3009            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3010
3011        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3012
3013    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3014        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3015
3016    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3018        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3019        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3020
3021    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3024        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3025
3026    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3028        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3029        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3030
3031    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3032        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3033
3034    def and_sql(
3035        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3036    ) -> str:
3037        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3038
3039    def or_sql(
3040        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3041    ) -> str:
3042        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3043
3044    def xor_sql(
3045        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3046    ) -> str:
3047        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3048
3049    def connector_sql(
3050        self,
3051        expression: exp.Connector,
3052        op: str,
3053        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3054    ) -> str:
3055        if stack is not None:
3056            if expression.expressions:
3057                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3058            else:
3059                stack.append(expression.right)
3060                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3061                    for comment in expression.comments:
3062                        if comment:
3063                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3064                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3065            return op
3066
3067        stack = [expression]
3068        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3069        ops = set()
3070
3071        while stack:
3072            node = stack.pop()
3073            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3074                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3075            else:
3076                sql = self.sql(node)
3077                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3078                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3079                else:
3080                    sqls.append(sql)
3081
3082        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3083        return sep.join(sqls)
3084
3085    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3087
3088    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3090
3091    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3092        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3093
3094    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3096
3097    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3099
3100    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3102
3103    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3104        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3105        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3106        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3107        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3108        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3109        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3110        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3111
3112    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3113        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3115
3116    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3117        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3118            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3119        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3120
3121    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3122        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3123
3124    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3126        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3127        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3128        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3129        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3130        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3131
3132    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3134        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3135        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3136        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3137        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3138        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3139        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3140        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3141        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3142
3143    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3144        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3145        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3146        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3147        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3148
3149        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3150            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3151
3152        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3153
3154    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3155        return "BEGIN"
3156
3157    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3158        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3159        if chain is not None:
3160            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3161
3162        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3163
3164    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3165        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3166        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3167        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3168
3169    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171
3172        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3173        if dtype:
3174            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3175            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3176            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3177            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3178            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3179
3180        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3181        if default:
3182            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3183
3184        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3185        if comment:
3186            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3187
3188        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3189        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3190
3191        if not drop and not allow_null:
3192            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3193
3194        if allow_null is not None:
3195            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3196            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3197
3198        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3199
3200    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3202        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3203            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3204        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3205
3206    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3207        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3210        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3211        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3212
3213    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3214        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3215            # Remove db from tables
3216            expression = expression.transform(
3217                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3218            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3220        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3221
3222    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3223        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3224        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3225        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3226        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3227
3228    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3229        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3230        return f"SET {exprs}"
3231
3232    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3233        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3234
3235        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3236            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3237        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3238            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3239        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3240            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3241        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3242            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3243        else:
3244            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3245
3246        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3247        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3248        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3249        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3250        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3251        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3252        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3253        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3254
3255        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3256
3257    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3258        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3259            return self.expressions(
3260                expression,
3261                key="actions",
3262                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3263                skip_first=True,
3264            )
3265        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3266
3267    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3268        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3269        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3270        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3271
3272    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3273        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3274
3275    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3276        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3277
3278        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3279            case = exp.case()
3280            for arg in expression.expressions:
3281                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3282            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3283
3284        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3285
3286        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3287        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3288        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3289
3290    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3291        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3292
3293    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3294        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3295
3296    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3297        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3298        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3299        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3300        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3301
3302    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3303        return self.sql(
3304            exp.Cast(
3305                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3306                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3307            )
3308        )
3309
3310    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3311        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3312            return self.func(
3313                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3314            )
3315        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3316
3317    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3318        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3319
3320        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3321            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3322
3323        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3324            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3325                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3326
3327        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3328            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3329                return self.sql(
3330                    exp.cast(
3331                        l / r,
3332                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3333                    )
3334                )
3335
3336        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3337
3338    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3339        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3340
3341    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3342        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3343
3344    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3345        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3346
3347    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3348        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3349
3350    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3351        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3352
3353    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3354        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3355
3356    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3357        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3358
3359    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3360        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3361
3362    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3363        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3364
3365    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3366        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3367
3368    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3369        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3370
3371    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3372        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3373            return self.sql(
3374                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3375            )
3376        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3377
3378    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3379        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3380
3381    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3383
3384    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3386
3387    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3389
3390    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3392
3393    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3395
3396    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3397        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3398
3399    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3400        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3401
3402    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3403        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3404
3405    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3406        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3407
3408    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3410
3411    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3413
3414    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3415        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3416
3417    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3418        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3419            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3420            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3421
3422        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3423
3424    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3425        this = expression.this
3426        expr = expression.expression
3427
3428        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3429            this, expr = expr, this
3430        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3431            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3432                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3433
3434            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3435
3436        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3437
3438    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3439        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3440        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3442        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3443        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3444
3445    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3446        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3447        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3448        binary_type = type(expression)
3449
3450        while stack:
3451            node = stack.pop()
3452
3453            if type(node) is binary_type:
3454                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3455                if op_func:
3456                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3457
3458                stack.append(node.right)
3459                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3460                stack.append(node.left)
3461            else:
3462                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3463
3464        return "".join(sqls)
3465
3466    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3467        args = []
3468
3469        for key in expression.arg_types:
3470            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3471
3472            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3473                for value in arg_value:
3474                    args.append(value)
3475            elif arg_value is not None:
3476                args.append(arg_value)
3477
3478        if self.normalize_functions:
3479            name = expression.sql_name()
3480        else:
3481            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3482
3483        return self.func(name, *args)
3484
3485    def func(
3486        self,
3487        name: str,
3488        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3489        prefix: str = "(",
3490        suffix: str = ")",
3491        normalize: bool = True,
3492    ) -> str:
3493        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3494        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3495
3496    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3497        arg_sqls = tuple(
3498            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3499        )
3500        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3501            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3502        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3503
3504    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3505        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3506
3507    def format_time(
3508        self,
3509        expression: exp.Expression,
3510        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3511        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3512    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3513        return format_time(
3514            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3515            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3516            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3517        )
3518
3519    def expressions(
3520        self,
3521        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3522        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3523        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3524        flat: bool = False,
3525        indent: bool = True,
3526        skip_first: bool = False,
3527        skip_last: bool = False,
3528        sep: str = ", ",
3529        prefix: str = "",
3530        dynamic: bool = False,
3531        new_line: bool = False,
3532    ) -> str:
3533        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3534
3535        if not expressions:
3536            return ""
3537
3538        if flat:
3539            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3540
3541        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3542        result_sqls = []
3543
3544        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3545            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3546            if not sql:
3547                continue
3548
3549            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3550
3551            if self.pretty:
3552                if self.leading_comma:
3553                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3554                else:
3555                    result_sqls.append(
3556                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3557                    )
3558            else:
3559                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3560
3561        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3562            if new_line:
3563                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3564                result_sqls.append("")
3565            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3566        else:
3567            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3568
3569        return (
3570            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3571            if indent
3572            else result_sql
3573        )
3574
3575    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3576        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3577        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3578        if flat:
3579            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3580        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3581
3582    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3583        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3584        if not property_name:
3585            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3586        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3587
3588    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3589        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3590
3591    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3592        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3593
3594    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3596        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3597        expressions = (
3598            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3599        )
3600        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3601
3602    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3603        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3604        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3605        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3606
3607    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3608        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3609
3610    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3611        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3612        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3613        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3614        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3615
3616        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3617        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3618            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3619            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3620            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3621            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3622        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3623            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3624                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3625            else:
3626                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3627        else:
3628            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3629        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3630
3631    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3632        table = expression.this
3633        table_alias = ""
3634
3635        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3636        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3637            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3638            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3639
3640        this = self.sql(table)
3641        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3642        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3643        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3644        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3645        if returning:
3646            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3647
3648        sep = self.sep()
3649
3650        return self.prepend_ctes(
3651            expression,
3652            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3653        )
3654
3655    @unsupported_args("format")
3656    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3657        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3658
3659    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3660        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3661            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3662            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3663
3664        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3665        if not fmt:
3666            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3667            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3668
3669        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3670
3671    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3673        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3674        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3675        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3676        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3677
3678    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3680        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3681        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3682        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3683
3684    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3685        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3686
3687    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3688        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3689
3690    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3691    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3692        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3693        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3694        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3695        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3696        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3697        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3698        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3699
3700    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3701        return ""
3702
3703    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3705        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3706        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3707        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3708        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3709
3710    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3712        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3713
3714        if having:
3715            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3716
3717        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3718
3719    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3720        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3721        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3722        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3723        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3724        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3725        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3726        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3727        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3728        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3729        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3730        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3731        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3732        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3733
3734    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3735        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3736        if key_block_size:
3737            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3738
3739        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3740        if using:
3741            return f"USING {using}"
3742
3743        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3744        if parser:
3745            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3746
3747        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3748        if comment:
3749            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3750
3751        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3752        if visible is not None:
3753            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3754
3755        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3756        if engine_attr:
3757            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3758
3759        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3760        if secondary_engine_attr:
3761            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3762
3763        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3764        return ""
3765
3766    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3767        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3768        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3769
3770    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3771        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3772        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3774        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3775        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3776        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3777        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3778        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3779        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3780        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3781        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3782
3783    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3784        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3785            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3786
3787        case = exp.Case().when(
3788            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3789            expression.args["true"],
3790            copy=False,
3791        )
3792        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3793        if else_cond:
3794            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3795
3796        return self.sql(case)
3797
3798    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3800        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3801        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3802        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3803        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3804        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3805
3806    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3807        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3808
3809    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3811
3812    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3813        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3814        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3815        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3816        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3817        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3818        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3819
3820    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3822        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3824
3825    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3827        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3828        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3829
3830    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3831        arg = expression.this
3832        if not arg.type:
3833            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3834
3835            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3836
3837        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3838            return self.sql(arg)
3839
3840        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3841        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3842
3843    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3844        this = expression.this
3845        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3846            return self.sql(this)
3847
3848        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3849
3850    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3851        this = expression.this
3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3853            return self.sql(this)
3854
3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3856
3857    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3858        this = expression.this
3859        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3860
3861        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3862            return self.sql(
3863                exp.cast(
3864                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3865                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3866                )
3867            )
3868
3869        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3870            return self.sql(this)
3871
3872        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3873
3874    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3875        return self.sql(
3876            exp.func(
3877                "DATEDIFF",
3878                expression.this,
3879                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3880                "day",
3881            )
3882        )
3883
3884    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3885        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3886            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3887
3888        unit = expression.text("unit")
3889        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3890            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3891
3892        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3893
3894    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3895        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3896
3897        return self.func(
3898            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3899        )
3900
3901    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3902        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3903            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3904            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3905            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3906            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3907
3908        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3909
3910        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3911        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3912            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3913
3914        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3915
3916    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3917        expression.set(
3918            "expressions",
3919            [
3920                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3921                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3922                else e
3923                for e in expression.expressions
3924            ],
3925        )
3926
3927        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3928
3929    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3930        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3931        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3932
3933        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3934
3935    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3936        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3937        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3938
3939        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3940
3941        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3942        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3943
3944        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3945        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3946
3947        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3948        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3949
3950        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3951        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3952
3953        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3954
3955    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3956    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3957    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3958        to = expression.this
3959        value = expression.expression
3960        style = expression.args.get("style")
3961        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3962        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3963
3964        if not to or not value:
3965            return ""
3966
3967        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3968        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3969            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3970
3971        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3972        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3973
3974        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3975        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3976            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3977
3978            style_value = style.name
3979            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3980            if not converted_style:
3981                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3982
3983            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3984
3985            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3986                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3987            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3988                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3989            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3990                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3991            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3992                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3993
3994        if not transformed:
3995            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3996
3997        return self.sql(transformed)
3998
3999    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4000        this = expression.this
4001        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4002            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4003            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4004
4005        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4006            return f".{this}"
4007
4008        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4009        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4010
4011    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4012        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4013        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4014
4015    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4016        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4017            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4018
4019            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4020
4021        return expression
4022
4023    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4024        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4025            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4026            mods = sorted(
4027                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4028                key=lambda x: 0
4029                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4030                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4031            )
4032
4033            if mods:
4034                mod = mods[0]
4035                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4036                this.meta["inline"] = True
4037                mod.this.replace(this)
4038                return self.sql(expression.this)
4039
4040            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4041
4042            if agg_func:
4043                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4044
4045        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4046
4047    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4048        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4049        if self.pretty:
4050            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4051        return string
4052
4053    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4054        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4055
4056        if expression.expressions:
4057            upper = option.upper()
4058
4059            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4060            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4061
4062            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4063            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4064            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4065            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4066
4067        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4068
4069        if not value:
4070            return option
4071
4072        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4073
4074        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4075
4076    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4077        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4078        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4079            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4080            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4081            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4082        else:
4083            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4084            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4085            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4086
4087        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4088        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4089
4090        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4091        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4092
4093        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4094        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4095
4096        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4097        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4098
4099        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4100
4101    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4103        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4104
4105        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4106        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4107        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4108        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4109
4110        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4111        params = self.expressions(
4112            expression,
4113            key="params",
4114            sep=sep,
4115            new_line=True,
4116            skip_last=True,
4117            skip_first=True,
4118            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4119        )
4120
4121        if params:
4122            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4123                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4124            elif not self.pretty:
4125                params = f" {params}"
4126
4127        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4128
4129    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4130        return ""
4131
4132    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4133        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4134        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4135        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4136        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4137        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4138
4139        if filter_col or retention_period:
4140            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4141
4142        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4143
4144    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4145        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4146    ) -> str:
4147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4148        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4149        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4150        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4151
4152    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4154        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4155        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4156
4157    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4158        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4159
4160    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4162        expr = expression.expression
4163
4164        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4165            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4166            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4167        else:
4168            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4169
4170        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4171
4172    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4173        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4174            return self.sql(expression.this)
4175
4176        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4177
4178    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4179        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4180        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4181
4182        if lower and upper:
4183            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4184        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4185
4186    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4187        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4188        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4189        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4190        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4191        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4192        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4193
4194        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4195
4196    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4197        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4198
4199        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4200        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4201            fill_pattern = "' '"
4202
4203        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4204
4205    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4206        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4207        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4208
4209    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4210        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4211
4212        parent = expression.parent
4213        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4214            parent = parent.parent
4215
4216        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4217            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4218
4219        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4220            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4221
4222        return self.sql(generate_series)
4223
4224    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4225        exprs = expression.expressions
4226        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4227            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4228        else:
4229            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4230
4231        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4232
4233    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4234        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4235            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4236
4237        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4238        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4239        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4240
4241        if source_tz and timestamp:
4242            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4243                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4244            )
4245
4246        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4247
4248        return self.sql(expr)
4249
4250    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4252        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4253
4254        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4255
4256        if _with is None:
4257            with_sql = ""
4258        elif not _with:
4259            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4260        else:
4261            with_sql = " WITH"
4262
4263        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4264
4265        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4266
4267    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4268        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4269            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4270
4271        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4272        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4273        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4274
4275        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4276        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4277
4278        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4279
4280    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4281        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4282        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4283        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4284        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4285        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4286
4287    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4288        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4289        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4290        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4291        return res
4292
4293    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4294        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4295        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4296        empty = (
4297            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4298            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4299            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4300        )
4301
4302        error = expression.args.get("error")
4303        error = (
4304            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4305            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4306            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4307        )
4308
4309        if error and empty:
4310            error = (
4311                f"{empty} {error}"
4312                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4313                else f"{error} {empty}"
4314            )
4315            empty = ""
4316
4317        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4318
4319        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4320
4321    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4323        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4324
4325        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4326        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4327
4328        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4329        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4330
4331        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4332
4333        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4334
4335    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4336        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4337
4338        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4339            parent = expression.parent
4340            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4341                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4342                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4343            else:
4344                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4345                this = expression.this
4346                this_sql = (
4347                    self.expressions(this)
4348                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4349                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4350                )
4351                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4352
4353        return array_agg
4354
4355    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4357        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4358
4359        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4360
4361    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4362        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4363
4364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4365        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4366
4367        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4368        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4369
4370        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4371
4372        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4373
4374        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4375
4376    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4378        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4379        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4380
4381        return f"{this}{columns}"
4382
4383    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4385
4386        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4387        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4388
4389        return f"{kind}{this}"
4390
4391    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4392        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4393        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4394            func = f"*{func}"
4395
4396        return func
4397
4398    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4400        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4401        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4402        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4403        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4404
4405        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 206    }
 207
 208    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 209    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 210    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 211    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 212
 213    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 214    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 215    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 216
 217    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 218    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 219
 220    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 221    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 222
 223    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 224    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 225
 226    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 227    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 228
 229    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 230    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 231
 232    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 233    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 234
 235    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 236    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 237
 238    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 239    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 240
 241    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 242    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 243
 244    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 245    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 246
 247    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 248    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 249
 250    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 251    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 252
 253    # Whether join hints should be generated
 254    JOIN_HINTS = True
 255
 256    # Whether table hints should be generated
 257    TABLE_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # Whether query hints should be generated
 260    QUERY_HINTS = True
 261
 262    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 263    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 264
 265    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 266    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 267
 268    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 269    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 270
 271    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 272    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 273
 274    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 275    RETURNING_END = True
 276
 277    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 278    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 279
 280    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 281    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 282
 283    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 284    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 285
 286    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 287    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 288
 289    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 290    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 291    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 292    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 293
 294    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 295    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 296
 297    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 298    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 299
 300    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 301    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 302
 303    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 304    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 305
 306    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 307    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 308
 309    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 310    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 311
 312    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 313    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 314
 315    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 316    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 317
 318    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 319    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 320
 321    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 322    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 323
 324    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 325    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 326
 327    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 328    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 329
 330    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 331    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 332
 333    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 334    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 335
 336    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 337    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 338
 339    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 340    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 341
 342    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 343    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 344
 345    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 346    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 347
 348    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 349    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 350
 351    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 352    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 353
 354    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 355    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 356
 357    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 358    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 359
 360    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 361    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 362
 363    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 364    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 365
 366    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 367    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 368
 369    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 370    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 371    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 372
 373    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 374    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 375
 376    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 377    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 378
 379    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 380    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 381
 382    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 383    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 384
 385    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 386    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 387
 388    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 389    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 390
 391    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 392    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 393    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 394    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 395
 396    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 397    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 398
 399    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 400    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 401
 402    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 403    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 404
 405    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 406    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 407
 408    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 409    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 410
 411    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 412    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 413
 414    # The HEX function name
 415    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 416
 417    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 418    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 419
 420    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 421    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 422
 423    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 424    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 425
 426    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 427    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 428
 429    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 430    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 431
 432    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 433    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 434
 435    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 436    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 437
 438    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 439        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 448        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 449    }
 450
 451    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 452        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 453        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 454        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 455        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 456        "DAYS": "DAY",
 457        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 458        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 459        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 460        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 461    }
 462
 463    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 464        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 465        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 466        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 467        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 468            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 469            if e.args.get("windows")
 470            else ""
 471        ),
 472        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 473    }
 474
 475    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 476
 477    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 478
 479    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 480    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 481
 482    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 483        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 485        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 489        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 491        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 498        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 511        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 512        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 514        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 519        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 524        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 530        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 536        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 544        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 549        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 555        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 564        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 567        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 568        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570    }
 571
 572    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 573    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 574
 575    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 576    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 577        exp.Command,
 578        exp.Create,
 579        exp.Delete,
 580        exp.Drop,
 581        exp.From,
 582        exp.Insert,
 583        exp.Join,
 584        exp.MultitableInserts,
 585        exp.Select,
 586        exp.SetOperation,
 587        exp.Update,
 588        exp.Where,
 589        exp.With,
 590    )
 591
 592    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 593    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 594        exp.Binary,
 595        exp.SetOperation,
 596    )
 597
 598    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 599    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 600        exp.Column,
 601        exp.Literal,
 602        exp.Neg,
 603        exp.Paren,
 604    )
 605
 606    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 607        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 609        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 610        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 611    }
 612
 613    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 614    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 615
 616    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 617
 618    __slots__ = (
 619        "pretty",
 620        "identify",
 621        "normalize",
 622        "pad",
 623        "_indent",
 624        "normalize_functions",
 625        "unsupported_level",
 626        "max_unsupported",
 627        "leading_comma",
 628        "max_text_width",
 629        "comments",
 630        "dialect",
 631        "unsupported_messages",
 632        "_escaped_quote_end",
 633        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 634        "_next_name",
 635        "_identifier_start",
 636        "_identifier_end",
 637    )
 638
 639    def __init__(
 640        self,
 641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 642        identify: str | bool = False,
 643        normalize: bool = False,
 644        pad: int = 2,
 645        indent: int = 2,
 646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 649        leading_comma: bool = False,
 650        max_text_width: int = 80,
 651        comments: bool = True,
 652        dialect: DialectType = None,
 653    ):
 654        import sqlglot
 655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 656
 657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 658        self.identify = identify
 659        self.normalize = normalize
 660        self.pad = pad
 661        self._indent = indent
 662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 666        self.comments = comments
 667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 668
 669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 670        self.normalize_functions = (
 671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 672        )
 673
 674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 677        )
 678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 679
 680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 681
 682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 684
 685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 686        """
 687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 688
 689        Args:
 690            expression: The syntax tree.
 691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 692                it is safer to copy.
 693
 694        Returns:
 695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 696        """
 697        if copy:
 698            expression = expression.copy()
 699
 700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 701
 702        self.unsupported_messages = []
 703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 704
 705        if self.pretty:
 706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 707
 708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 709            return sql
 710
 711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 713                logger.warning(msg)
 714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 716
 717        return sql
 718
 719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 721        if (
 722            not expression.parent
 723            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 724            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 725        ):
 726            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 727
 728            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 729
 730        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 731            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 732
 733            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 734
 735        return expression
 736
 737    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 739            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 740        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 741
 742    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 743        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 744
 745    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 746        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 747
 748    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 749        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 750        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 751        return comment
 752
 753    def maybe_comment(
 754        self,
 755        sql: str,
 756        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 757        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 758        separated: bool = False,
 759    ) -> str:
 760        comments = (
 761            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 762            if self.comments
 763            else None
 764        )
 765
 766        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 767            return sql
 768
 769        comments_sql = " ".join(
 770            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 771        )
 772
 773        if not comments_sql:
 774            return sql
 775
 776        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 777
 778        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 779            return (
 780                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 781                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 782                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 783            )
 784
 785        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 786
 787    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 788        this_sql = (
 789            self.sql(expression)
 790            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 791            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        )
 793        if not this_sql:
 794            return "()"
 795
 796        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 797        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 798
 799    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 800        original = self.identify
 801        self.identify = False
 802        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 803        self.identify = original
 804        return result
 805
 806    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 807        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 808            return name.upper()
 809        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 810            return name.lower()
 811        return name
 812
 813    def indent(
 814        self,
 815        sql: str,
 816        level: int = 0,
 817        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 818        skip_first: bool = False,
 819        skip_last: bool = False,
 820    ) -> str:
 821        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 822            return sql
 823
 824        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 825        lines = sql.split("\n")
 826
 827        return "\n".join(
 828            (
 829                line
 830                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 831                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 832            )
 833            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 834        )
 835
 836    def sql(
 837        self,
 838        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 839        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 840        comment: bool = True,
 841    ) -> str:
 842        if not expression:
 843            return ""
 844
 845        if isinstance(expression, str):
 846            return expression
 847
 848        if key:
 849            value = expression.args.get(key)
 850            if value:
 851                return self.sql(value)
 852            return ""
 853
 854        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 855
 856        if callable(transform):
 857            sql = transform(self, expression)
 858        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 859            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 860
 861            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 862                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 864                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 865            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 866                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 867            else:
 868                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 869        else:
 870            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 871
 872        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 873
 874    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 875        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 877        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 878
 879    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 880        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        options = expression.args.get("options")
 883        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 884        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 885        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 886        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 888
 889    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 890        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 891            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 892        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 893        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 894
 895    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 896        return ".".join(
 897            self.sql(part)
 898            for part in (
 899                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 900                expression.args.get("db"),
 901                expression.args.get("table"),
 902                expression.args.get("this"),
 903            )
 904            if part
 905        )
 906
 907    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 908        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 909
 910        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 911            join_mark = ""
 912            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 913
 914        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 915
 916    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 919        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 920        return f"{position}{this}"
 921
 922    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 923        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 925        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 926        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 927        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 928        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 929        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 930        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 931
 932        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 933            kind = ""
 934
 935        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 936
 937    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 939        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 940        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 941
 942    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 945            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 946        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 947            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 948        else:
 949            persisted = ""
 950        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 951
 952    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 953        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 954
 955    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 956        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 957            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 958        else:
 959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960
 961        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 962
 963    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 964        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 965    ) -> str:
 966        this = ""
 967        if expression.this is not None:
 968            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 969            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 970
 971        start = expression.args.get("start")
 972        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 973        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 974        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 975        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 976        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 977        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 978        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 979        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 980        cycle_sql = ""
 981
 982        if cycle is not None:
 983            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 984            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 985
 986        sequence_opts = ""
 987        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 988            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 989            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 990
 991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 992        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 993
 994        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 995
 996    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1000        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1001        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1002
1003    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1004        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1005    ) -> str:
1006        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1007
1008    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1010
1011    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1013
1014    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1016        if desc is not None:
1017            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1018        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1019
1020    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1023        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1024        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1025        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1026        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1027        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1028        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1029
1030    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1031        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1032
1033    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1035        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1036        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1037        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1038
1039        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1040
1041        properties_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1043            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1044        ):
1045            properties_sql = self.sql(
1046                exp.Properties(
1047                    expressions=[
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1049                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1050                    ]
1051                )
1052            )
1053
1054            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1055                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1056            elif not self.pretty:
1057                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1058                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1059
1060        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1061        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1062
1063        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        if expression_sql:
1065            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1066
1067            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1068                postalias_props_sql = ""
1069                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1070                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1071                        exp.Properties(
1072                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1073                        ),
1074                        wrapped=False,
1075                    )
1076                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1077                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1078
1079        postindex_props_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1081            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1082                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1083                wrapped=False,
1084                prefix=" ",
1085            )
1086
1087        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1088        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1089        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1090
1091        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1092        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1093        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1094
1095        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1096        if clustered is None:
1097            clustered_sql = ""
1098        elif clustered:
1099            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100        else:
1101            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1102
1103        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1105            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1107                sep=" ",
1108                prefix=" ",
1109                wrapped=False,
1110            )
1111
1112        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1113
1114        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1116            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1117                exp.Properties(
1118                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1119                ),
1120                sep=" ",
1121                prefix=" ",
1122                wrapped=False,
1123            )
1124
1125        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1126        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1127        no_schema_binding = (
1128            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1129        )
1130
1131        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1132        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1133
1134        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1136
1137    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1138        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1139        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1140        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1141        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1142        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1143        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1144        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1145        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1146        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1147        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1148
1149        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1150        if cache is None:
1151            cache_str = ""
1152        elif cache is True:
1153            cache_str = " CACHE"
1154        else:
1155            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1156
1157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1158        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1159
1160        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1161
1162    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1165        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1166        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1167
1168    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1169        style = expression.args.get("style")
1170        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1173        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1174
1175    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1176        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1177        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1178
1179    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1180        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1181        if with_:
1182            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1183        return sql
1184
1185    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1186        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        recursive = (
1188            "RECURSIVE "
1189            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1190            else ""
1191        )
1192
1193        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1194
1195    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1196        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1197
1198        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1199        if materialized is False:
1200            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1201        elif materialized:
1202            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1203
1204        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1205
1206    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1209        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1210
1211        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1212            columns = ""
1213            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1214
1215        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1216            alias = self._next_name()
1217
1218        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1219
1220    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1223            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1224        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1225
1226    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1229            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1230        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1231
1232    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1235            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1236        return this
1237
1238    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1241
1242        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1245        else:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1248
1249        if escape:
1250            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1251            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1252        else:
1253            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1254            escape_sql = ""
1255
1256        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1257            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1258
1259        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1260
1261    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1262        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1263        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1264
1265    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1269        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1270
1271    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1272        nested = ""
1273        values = ""
1274        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275
1276        type_value = expression.this
1277        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1278            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        else:
1280            type_sql = (
1281                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1282                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1283                else type_value
1284            )
1285
1286        if interior:
1287            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1288                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1289                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1290                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1291                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1292                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1293            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1294                nested = f" {interior}"
1295            else:
1296                nested = f"({interior})"
1297
1298        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1299        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1301            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1302        ):
1303            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1304
1305        return type_sql
1306
1307    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1308        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1309        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1310        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1311        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1312
1313    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1316        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1317        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1318        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1319        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1322        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1323        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1324        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1325        if self.RETURNING_END:
1326            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1327        else:
1328            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1329        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1330
1331    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1334        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1335        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1336        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1337        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1338        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1339        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1340        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1341        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1342        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1343        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1344        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1345        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1346        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1347
1348    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1349        op_type = type(expression)
1350        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1351
1352        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1353        if (
1354            distinct is False
1355            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1356            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1357        ):
1358            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1359
1360        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1361
1362        if distinct is None:
1363            distinct = default_distinct
1364            if distinct is None:
1365                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1366
1367        if distinct is default_distinct:
1368            kind = ""
1369        else:
1370            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1371
1372        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1373        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1374
1375    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1376        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1377            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1378            order = expression.args.get("order")
1379
1380            if limit or order:
1381                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1382
1383                if limit:
1384                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1385                if order:
1386                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1387                return self.sql(select)
1388
1389        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1390        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1391
1392        while stack:
1393            node = stack.pop()
1394
1395            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1396                stack.append(node.expression)
1397                stack.append(
1398                    self.maybe_comment(
1399                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1400                    )
1401                )
1402                stack.append(node.this)
1403            else:
1404                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1405
1406        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1407        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1408        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1409
1410    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1411        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1412        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1413        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1414        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1415        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1416            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1417        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1418        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1419
1420    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1421        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1422            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1423            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1424            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1425
1426        agg = expression.this
1427        agg_arg = agg.this
1428        cond = expression.expression.this
1429        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1430        return self.sql(agg)
1431
1432    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1433        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1434            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1435            return ""
1436
1437        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1438
1439    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1441        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1442        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1443        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1444        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1445        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1446        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1447        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1448        if include:
1449            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1450        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1451        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1452        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1453        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1454        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1455        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1456
1457        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1458
1459    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1460        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1461        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1462        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1463        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1465        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1466        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1467
1468        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1469
1470        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1471        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1472
1473    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1474        text = expression.name
1475        lower = text.lower()
1476        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1477        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1478        if (
1479            expression.quoted
1480            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1481            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1482            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1483        ):
1484            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1485        return text
1486
1487    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1488        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1489        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1490            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1491
1492        return text
1493
1494    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1495        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1496        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1497            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1498        return text
1499
1500    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1501        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1502        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1503        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1504        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1505        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1506
1507    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1508        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1509        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1510
1511    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1512        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1513
1514    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1515        root_properties = []
1516        with_properties = []
1517
1518        for p in expression.expressions:
1519            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1520            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1521                with_properties.append(p)
1522            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1523                root_properties.append(p)
1524
1525        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1526        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1527
1528        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1529            with_props = " " + with_props
1530
1531        return root_props + with_props
1532
1533    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1534        if properties.expressions:
1535            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1536        return ""
1537
1538    def properties(
1539        self,
1540        properties: exp.Properties,
1541        prefix: str = "",
1542        sep: str = ", ",
1543        suffix: str = "",
1544        wrapped: bool = True,
1545    ) -> str:
1546        if properties.expressions:
1547            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1548            if expressions:
1549                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1550                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1551        return ""
1552
1553    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1554        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1555
1556    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1557        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1558        for p in properties.expressions:
1559            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1560            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1561                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1562            else:
1563                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1564
1565        return properties_locs
1566
1567    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1568        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1569            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1570        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1571
1572    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1573        property_cls = expression.__class__
1574        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1575            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1576
1577        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1578        if not property_name:
1579            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1580
1581        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1582
1583    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1584        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1585            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1586            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1587
1588            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1589            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1590                like = f"({like})"
1591
1592            return like
1593
1594        if expression.expressions:
1595            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1596
1597        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1598        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1599
1600    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1601        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1602        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1603        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1604
1605    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1606        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1607        local = expression.args.get("local")
1608        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1609        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1610        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1611        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1612        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1613
1614    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1615        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1617        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1618
1619    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1620        if expression.args.get("default"):
1621            property = "DEFAULT"
1622        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1623            property = "ON"
1624        else:
1625            property = "OFF"
1626        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1627
1628    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1629        if expression.args.get("no"):
1630            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631        if expression.args.get("default"):
1632            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1633
1634        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1635        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1636
1637    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1638        default = expression.args.get("default")
1639        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1640        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1641        if default or minimum or maximum:
1642            if default:
1643                prop = "DEFAULT"
1644            elif minimum:
1645                prop = "MINIMUM"
1646            else:
1647                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1648            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1649        units = expression.args.get("units")
1650        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1651        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1652
1653    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1654        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1655        always = expression.args.get("always")
1656        default = expression.args.get("default")
1657        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1658        never = expression.args.get("never")
1659
1660        if autotemp is not None:
1661            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1662        elif always:
1663            prop = "ALWAYS"
1664        elif default:
1665            prop = "DEFAULT"
1666        elif manual:
1667            prop = "MANUAL"
1668        elif never:
1669            prop = "NEVER"
1670        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1671
1672    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1673        no = expression.args.get("no")
1674        no = " NO" if no else ""
1675        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1676        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1677        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1678        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1679        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1680
1681    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1682        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1683            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1684        if expression.this:
1685            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1687            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1688
1689        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1690        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1691        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1692
1693    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695
1696        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1697        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1698            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1699        else:
1700            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1701
1702        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1703
1704    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1705        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1706        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1707        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1708        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1709        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1710        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1711        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1712
1713    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1714        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1715        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1716        statistics_sql = ""
1717        if statistics is not None:
1718            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1719        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1720
1721    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1723        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1724        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1725        data_consistency = (
1726            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1727        )
1728        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1729        retention_period = (
1730            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1731        )
1732
1733        if this:
1734            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1735        else:
1736            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1737
1738        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1739
1740        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1741
1742    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1743        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1744        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1745
1746        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1747            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1748        else:
1749            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1750
1751        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1752        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1753        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1754        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1755        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1756        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1757        if is_function:
1758            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1759        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1760
1761        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1762        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1763        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1764        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1765        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1766        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1767        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1768        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1769
1770        if self.RETURNING_END:
1771            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1772        else:
1773            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1774
1775        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1776        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1777        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1778        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1779
1780        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1781        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1782
1783        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1784        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1785
1786    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1788
1789    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1791        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1793        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1794        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1795
1796    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1797        return expression.name
1798
1799    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1800        return expression.name
1801
1802    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1803        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1804
1805        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1806        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1807
1808        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1809        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1810        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1811
1812        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1813        if expressions:
1814            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1815            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1816
1817        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1818
1819    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1820        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1821
1822    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1823        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1824        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1825        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1826        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1827        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1828        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1829        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1830        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1831        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1832        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1833        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1834        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1835        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1836
1837    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1838        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1839
1840    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1841        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1842        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1843        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1844        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1845
1846    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1849        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1850        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1851
1852    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1853        return ".".join(
1854            self.sql(part)
1855            for part in (
1856                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1857                expression.args.get("db"),
1858                expression.args.get("this"),
1859            )
1860            if part is not None
1861        )
1862
1863    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1864        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1865        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1866        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1867        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1868        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1869        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1870        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1871        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1872
1873        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1874        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1875            sample_pre_alias = sample
1876            sample_post_alias = ""
1877        else:
1878            sample_pre_alias = ""
1879            sample_post_alias = sample
1880
1881        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1882        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1883        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1884        joins = self.indent(
1885            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1886        )
1887        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1888
1889        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1890        if file_format:
1891            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1892            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1893            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1894
1895        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1896        if ordinality:
1897            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1898            alias = ""
1899
1900        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1901        if when:
1902            table = f"{table} {when}"
1903
1904        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1905        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1906
1907        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1908        if rows_from:
1909            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1910
1911        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1912
1913    def tablesample_sql(
1914        self,
1915        expression: exp.TableSample,
1916        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1917    ) -> str:
1918        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1919        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1920        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1921        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1922        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1923        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1924        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1925        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1926        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1927
1928        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1929        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1930            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1931
1932        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1933        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1934            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1935
1936        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1937        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1938            expr = f"({expr})"
1939
1940        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1941
1942    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944
1945        if expression.this:
1946            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947            if not expressions:
1948                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1949
1950            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1951            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1952            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1953            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1954            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1955
1956        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1957        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1958        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1959
1960        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1961
1962        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1963        if include_nulls is not None:
1964            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1965        else:
1966            nulls = ""
1967
1968        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1969        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1970        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1971
1972    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1973        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1974        kind = expression.text("kind")
1975        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1976        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1977
1978    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1979        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1980
1981    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1983        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1985        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1987        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1988        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1989        if self.RETURNING_END:
1990            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1991        else:
1992            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1993        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1995
1996    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1997        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1998
1999        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2000        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2001            args = self.expressions(expression)
2002            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2003            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2004            values = (
2005                f"({values})"
2006                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2007                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2008                else values
2009            )
2010            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2011
2012        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2013        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2014        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2015
2016        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2017
2018        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2019            row = tup.expressions
2020
2021            if i == 0 and column_names:
2022                row = [
2023                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2024                ]
2025
2026            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2027
2028        if self.pretty:
2029            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2030            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2031            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2032            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2033            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2034
2035        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2036        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2037        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2038
2039    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2040        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2041
2042    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2043    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2044        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2045        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2046        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2047
2048    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2049        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2050
2051    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2052        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2053        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2054
2055    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2057        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2058
2059    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2061        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2062
2063    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2064        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2065        if group_by_all is True:
2066            modifier = " ALL"
2067        elif group_by_all is False:
2068            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2069        else:
2070            modifier = ""
2071
2072        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2073
2074        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2075        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2076        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2077
2078        groupings = csv(
2079            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2080            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2081            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2082            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2083            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2084        )
2085
2086        if (
2087            expression.expressions
2088            and groupings
2089            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2090        ):
2091            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2092
2093        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2094
2095    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2096        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2097        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2098
2099    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2100        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2101        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2102        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2103        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2104        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2105        return start + connect
2106
2107    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2108        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2109
2110    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2111        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2112            side = None
2113        else:
2114            side = expression.side
2115
2116        op_sql = " ".join(
2117            op
2118            for op in (
2119                expression.method,
2120                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2121                side,
2122                expression.kind,
2123                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2124            )
2125            if op
2126        )
2127        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2128        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2129        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2130        using = expression.args.get("using")
2131
2132        if not on_sql and using:
2133            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2134
2135        this = expression.this
2136        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2137
2138        if on_sql:
2139            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2140            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2141            if using:
2142                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2143            else:
2144                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2145        elif not op_sql:
2146            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2147                return f" {this_sql}"
2148
2149            return f", {this_sql}"
2150
2151        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2152            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2153
2154        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2155
2156    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2157        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2158        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2159        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2160
2161    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2162        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2163
2164        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2165        if cross_apply is True:
2166            op = "INNER JOIN "
2167        elif cross_apply is False:
2168            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2169        else:
2170            op = ""
2171
2172        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2173
2174    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176
2177        if expression.args.get("view"):
2178            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2179            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2180            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2181            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2182            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2183            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2184
2185        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2186        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2187        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2188
2189    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2191
2192        args = [
2193            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2194            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2195            if e
2196        ]
2197
2198        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2199        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2200        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2201        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2202
2203        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2204
2205    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207        value = expression.expression
2208        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2209        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2210        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2211        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2212
2213    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2214        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2215        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2217        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2218        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2219        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2220        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2221        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2222
2223    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2224        expressions = (
2225            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2226        )
2227        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2228        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2229
2230    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2231        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2232
2233    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2234        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2235            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2236            return ""
2237
2238        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2240        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2241        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2242
2243        if wait is not None:
2244            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2245                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2246            else:
2247                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2248
2249        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2250
2251    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2252        text = expression.this or ""
2253        if expression.is_string:
2254            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2255        return text
2256
2257    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2258        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2259            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2260            text = "".join(
2261                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2262            )
2263
2264        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2265            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2266        )
2267
2268    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2269        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2270        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2271        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2272        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2273        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2274        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2275        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2276        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2277        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2278        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2279        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2280
2281    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2282        return "NULL"
2283
2284    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2285        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2286
2287    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2290        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2291        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2292
2293    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2294        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2295        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2296        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2297        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2298        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2299        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2300        interpolated_values = [
2301            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2302            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2303        ]
2304        interpolate = (
2305            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2306        )
2307        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2308
2309    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2310        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2311
2312    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2313        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2314
2315    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2316        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2317
2318    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2319        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2320        asc = not desc
2321
2322        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2323        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2324        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2325        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2326        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2327
2328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2329
2330        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2331        nulls_sort_change = ""
2332        if nulls_first and (
2333            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2334        ):
2335            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2336        elif (
2337            nulls_last
2338            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2339            and not nulls_are_last
2340        ):
2341            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2342
2343        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2344        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2345            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2346            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2347                self.unsupported(
2348                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2349                )
2350                nulls_sort_change = ""
2351            elif (
2352                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2353                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2354                and (
2355                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2356                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2357                )
2358            ):
2359                self.unsupported(
2360                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2361                )
2362                nulls_sort_change = ""
2363            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2364                if expression.this.is_int:
2365                    self.unsupported(
2366                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2367                    )
2368                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2369                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2370                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2371                nulls_sort_change = ""
2372
2373        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2374        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2375
2376        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2377
2378    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2379        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2380        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2381
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383
2384        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2385
2386    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2387        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2388        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2389        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2390        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2391        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2392        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2393        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2394        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2395        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2396        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2397        definition_sqls = [
2398            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2399            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2400        ]
2401        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2402        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2403        body = "".join(
2404            (
2405                partition,
2406                order,
2407                measures,
2408                rows,
2409                after,
2410                pattern,
2411                define,
2412            )
2413        )
2414        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2415        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2416        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2417
2418    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2419        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2420
2421        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2422            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2423        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2424            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2425
2426        return csv(
2427            *sqls,
2428            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2429            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2430            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2431            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2432            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2433            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2434            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2435            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2436            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2437            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2438            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2439            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2440            self.options_modifier(expression),
2441            sep="",
2442        )
2443
2444    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2445        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2446        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2447
2448    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2449        return ""
2450
2451    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2452        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2453    ) -> t.List[str]:
2454        return [
2455            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2456            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2457        ]
2458
2459    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2460        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2461        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2462        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2463
2464    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2465        into = expression.args.get("into")
2466        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2467            into.pop()
2468
2469        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2470        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2471        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2473
2474        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2475        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2476            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2477            limit.pop()
2478        else:
2479            top = ""
2480
2481        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2482
2483        if kind:
2484            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2485                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2486            else:
2487                if kind == "STRUCT":
2488                    expressions = self.expressions(
2489                        sqls=[
2490                            self.sql(
2491                                exp.Struct(
2492                                    expressions=[
2493                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2494                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2495                                        else e
2496                                        for e in expression.expressions
2497                                    ]
2498                                )
2499                            )
2500                        ]
2501                    )
2502                kind = ""
2503
2504        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2505        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2506        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2507        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2508        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2509            expression,
2510            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2511            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2512            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2513        )
2514
2515        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2516
2517        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2518            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2519                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2520            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2521                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2522            else:
2523                table_kind = ""
2524            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2525
2526        return sql
2527
2528    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2531        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2532
2533    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2534        if expression.expressions:
2535            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2536        return ""
2537
2538    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2539        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2540        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2541        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2542        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2543        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2544        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2545        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2546
2547    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2550
2551    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        kind = expression.text("kind")
2554        if kind:
2555            kind = f"{kind}."
2556        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2557
2558    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2559        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2560
2561    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2562        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2563        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2564        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2565        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2566            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2567
2568            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2569            expression.set("sample", None)
2570
2571        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2572        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2573        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2574
2575    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2576        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2577        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2578
2579    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2580        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2581
2582        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2583        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2584
2585        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2586            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2587                alias.append("columns", offset)
2588
2589        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2590            columns = alias.columns
2591            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2592        else:
2593            alias = self.sql(alias)
2594
2595        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2596        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2597            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2598        else:
2599            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2600                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2601            elif offset:
2602                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2603            else:
2604                suffix = alias
2605
2606        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2607
2608    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2609        return ""
2610
2611    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2612        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2613        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2614
2615    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2618        order = expression.args.get("order")
2619        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2620        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2621        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2622        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2623
2624        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2625
2626        first = expression.args.get("first")
2627        if first is None:
2628            first = ""
2629        else:
2630            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2631
2632        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2633            return f"{this} {alias}"
2634
2635        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2636        return f"{this} ({args})"
2637
2638    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2639        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2640        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2641
2642    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2644        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2645        end = (
2646            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2647            or "CURRENT ROW"
2648        )
2649        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2650
2651    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2653        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2654        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2655
2656    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2659        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2660        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2661
2662    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2663        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2664    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2665        return apply_index_offset(
2666            expression.this,
2667            expression.expressions,
2668            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2669        )
2670
2671    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2672        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2673        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2675
2676    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2677        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2678
2679    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2681        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2682            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2683                this = self.wrap(this)
2684            return f"ANY{this}"
2685        return f"ANY {this}"
2686
2687    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2688        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2689
2690    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2692        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2693
2694        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2695            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2696            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2697
2698        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2699
2700        if default:
2701            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2702
2703        statements.append("END")
2704
2705        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2706            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2707
2708        return " ".join(statements)
2709
2710    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2713        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2714
2715    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2716        order = expression.args.get("order")
2717        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2718        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2719
2720    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2721        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2722        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2723        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2724
2725    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2726        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2727
2728        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2729            func_name = "LTRIM"
2730        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2731            func_name = "RTRIM"
2732        else:
2733            func_name = "TRIM"
2734
2735        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2736
2737    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2738        args = expression.expressions
2739        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2740            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2741
2742        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2743            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2744
2745        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2746            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2747
2748        return args
2749
2750    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2751        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2752
2753        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2754        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2755            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2756
2757        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2758
2759    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2760        return self.func(
2761            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2762        )
2763
2764    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2765        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2766        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2767
2768    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2769        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2770        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2771        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2772        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2773        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2774        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2775        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2776        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2777
2778    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2779        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2780        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2781        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2782        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2783
2784    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2785        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2786
2787    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2788        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2789        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2790        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2791
2792    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2794
2795    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2796        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2797
2798        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2799            path = self.escape_str(path)
2800
2801        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2802            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2803
2804        return path
2805
2806    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2807        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2808            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2809            if not callable(transform):
2810                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2811                return ""
2812
2813            return transform(self, expression)
2814
2815        if isinstance(expression, int):
2816            return str(expression)
2817
2818        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2819            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2820            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2821        else:
2822            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2823            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2824
2825        return escaped
2826
2827    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2828        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2829
2830    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2831        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2832        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2833
2834        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2835        if unique_keys is not None:
2836            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2837        else:
2838            unique_keys = ""
2839
2840        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2841        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2842        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2843        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2844
2845        return self.func(
2846            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2847            *expression.expressions,
2848            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2849        )
2850
2851    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2852        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2853
2854    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2855        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2856        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2857        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2858        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2859        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2860        return self.func(
2861            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2862        )
2863
2864    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2866        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2867        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2868        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2869        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2870        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2871        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2872        return self.func(
2873            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2874            this,
2875            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2876        )
2877
2878    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2879        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2880        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2881        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2882
2883        if nested_schema:
2884            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2885
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2888        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2889        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2890
2891    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2892        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2893
2894    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2896        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2897        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2898        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2899        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2900        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2901        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2902        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2903        return self.func(
2904            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2905        )
2906
2907    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2910        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2911        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2912        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2913        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2914
2915    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2918        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2919        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2920        with_ = (
2921            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2922            if expressions
2923            else ""
2924        )
2925        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2926
2927    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2928        query = expression.args.get("query")
2929        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2930        field = expression.args.get("field")
2931        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2932
2933        if query:
2934            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2935        elif unnest:
2936            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2937        elif field:
2938            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2939        else:
2940            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2941
2942        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2943
2944    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2945        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2946
2947    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2948        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2949        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2950            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2951        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2952
2953        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2954            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2955            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2956
2957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        if this:
2959            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2960            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2961
2962        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2963
2964    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2965        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2966
2967    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2969        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2970        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2971        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2972        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2973        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2974
2975    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2976        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2977        parent = expression.parent
2978        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2979        return self.func(
2980            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2981        )
2982
2983    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2984        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2985        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2986
2987    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2988        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2989        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2991        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2992
2993    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2994        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2995
2996    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2997        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2998        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2999        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3000
3001    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3002        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3003
3004        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3005        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3006
3007        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3008            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3009        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3010            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3011
3012        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3013
3014    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3015        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3016
3017    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3019        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3020        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3021
3022    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3024        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3025        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3026
3027    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3029        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3030        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3031
3032    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3033        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3034
3035    def and_sql(
3036        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3037    ) -> str:
3038        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3039
3040    def or_sql(
3041        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3042    ) -> str:
3043        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3044
3045    def xor_sql(
3046        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3047    ) -> str:
3048        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3049
3050    def connector_sql(
3051        self,
3052        expression: exp.Connector,
3053        op: str,
3054        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3055    ) -> str:
3056        if stack is not None:
3057            if expression.expressions:
3058                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3059            else:
3060                stack.append(expression.right)
3061                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3062                    for comment in expression.comments:
3063                        if comment:
3064                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3065                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3066            return op
3067
3068        stack = [expression]
3069        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3070        ops = set()
3071
3072        while stack:
3073            node = stack.pop()
3074            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3075                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3076            else:
3077                sql = self.sql(node)
3078                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3079                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3080                else:
3081                    sqls.append(sql)
3082
3083        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3084        return sep.join(sqls)
3085
3086    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3088
3089    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3090        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3091
3092    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3093        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3094
3095    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3097
3098    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3100
3101    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3103
3104    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3105        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3106        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3107        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3108        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3109        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3110        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3111        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3112
3113    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3114        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3116
3117    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3118        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3119            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3120        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3121
3122    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3124
3125    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3127        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3128        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3129        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3130        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3131        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3132
3133    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3135        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3136        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3137        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3138        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3139        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3140        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3141        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3142        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3143
3144    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3145        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3146        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3147        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3148        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3149
3150        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3151            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3152
3153        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3154
3155    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3156        return "BEGIN"
3157
3158    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3159        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3160        if chain is not None:
3161            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3162
3163        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3164
3165    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3166        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3167        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3168        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3169
3170    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3172
3173        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3174        if dtype:
3175            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3176            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3177            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3178            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3179            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3180
3181        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3182        if default:
3183            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3184
3185        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3186        if comment:
3187            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3188
3189        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3190        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3191
3192        if not drop and not allow_null:
3193            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3194
3195        if allow_null is not None:
3196            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3197            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3198
3199        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3200
3201    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3204            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3205        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3206
3207    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3208        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3211        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3212        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3213
3214    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3215        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3216            # Remove db from tables
3217            expression = expression.transform(
3218                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3219            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3221        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3222
3223    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3224        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3225        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3226        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3227        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3228
3229    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3230        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3231        return f"SET {exprs}"
3232
3233    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3234        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3235
3236        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3237            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3238        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3239            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3240        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3241            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3242        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3243            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3244        else:
3245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3246
3247        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3248        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3249        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3250        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3251        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3252        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3253        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3254        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3255
3256        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3257
3258    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3259        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3260            return self.expressions(
3261                expression,
3262                key="actions",
3263                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3264                skip_first=True,
3265            )
3266        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3267
3268    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3269        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3270        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3271        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3272
3273    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3274        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3275
3276    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3277        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3278
3279        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3280            case = exp.case()
3281            for arg in expression.expressions:
3282                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3283            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3284
3285        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3286
3287        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3288        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3289        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3290
3291    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3292        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3293
3294    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3295        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3296
3297    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3298        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3299        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3300        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3301        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3302
3303    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3304        return self.sql(
3305            exp.Cast(
3306                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3307                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3308            )
3309        )
3310
3311    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3312        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3313            return self.func(
3314                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3315            )
3316        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3317
3318    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3319        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3320
3321        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3322            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3323
3324        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3325            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3326                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3327
3328        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3329            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3330                return self.sql(
3331                    exp.cast(
3332                        l / r,
3333                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3334                    )
3335                )
3336
3337        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3338
3339    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3340        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3341
3342    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3343        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3344
3345    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3346        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3347
3348    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3350
3351    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3352        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3353
3354    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3355        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3356
3357    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3358        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3359
3360    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3362
3363    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3365
3366    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3368
3369    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3371
3372    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3373        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3374            return self.sql(
3375                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3376            )
3377        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3378
3379    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3381
3382    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3384
3385    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3387
3388    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3390
3391    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3393
3394    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3396
3397    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3398        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3399
3400    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3402
3403    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3405
3406    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3408
3409    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3411
3412    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3414
3415    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3416        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3417
3418    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3419        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3420            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3421            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3422
3423        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3424
3425    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3426        this = expression.this
3427        expr = expression.expression
3428
3429        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3430            this, expr = expr, this
3431        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3432            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3433                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3434
3435            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3436
3437        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3438
3439    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3440        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3441        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3443        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3444        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3445
3446    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3447        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3448        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3449        binary_type = type(expression)
3450
3451        while stack:
3452            node = stack.pop()
3453
3454            if type(node) is binary_type:
3455                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3456                if op_func:
3457                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3458
3459                stack.append(node.right)
3460                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3461                stack.append(node.left)
3462            else:
3463                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3464
3465        return "".join(sqls)
3466
3467    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3468        args = []
3469
3470        for key in expression.arg_types:
3471            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3472
3473            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3474                for value in arg_value:
3475                    args.append(value)
3476            elif arg_value is not None:
3477                args.append(arg_value)
3478
3479        if self.normalize_functions:
3480            name = expression.sql_name()
3481        else:
3482            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3483
3484        return self.func(name, *args)
3485
3486    def func(
3487        self,
3488        name: str,
3489        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3490        prefix: str = "(",
3491        suffix: str = ")",
3492        normalize: bool = True,
3493    ) -> str:
3494        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3495        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3496
3497    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3498        arg_sqls = tuple(
3499            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3500        )
3501        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3502            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3503        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3504
3505    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3506        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3507
3508    def format_time(
3509        self,
3510        expression: exp.Expression,
3511        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3512        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3513    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3514        return format_time(
3515            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3516            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3517            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3518        )
3519
3520    def expressions(
3521        self,
3522        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3523        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3524        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3525        flat: bool = False,
3526        indent: bool = True,
3527        skip_first: bool = False,
3528        skip_last: bool = False,
3529        sep: str = ", ",
3530        prefix: str = "",
3531        dynamic: bool = False,
3532        new_line: bool = False,
3533    ) -> str:
3534        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3535
3536        if not expressions:
3537            return ""
3538
3539        if flat:
3540            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3541
3542        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3543        result_sqls = []
3544
3545        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3546            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3547            if not sql:
3548                continue
3549
3550            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3551
3552            if self.pretty:
3553                if self.leading_comma:
3554                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3555                else:
3556                    result_sqls.append(
3557                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3558                    )
3559            else:
3560                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3561
3562        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3563            if new_line:
3564                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3565                result_sqls.append("")
3566            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3567        else:
3568            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3569
3570        return (
3571            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3572            if indent
3573            else result_sql
3574        )
3575
3576    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3577        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3578        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3579        if flat:
3580            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3581        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3582
3583    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3584        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3585        if not property_name:
3586            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3587        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3588
3589    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3590        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3591
3592    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3593        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3594
3595    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3597        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3598        expressions = (
3599            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3600        )
3601        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3602
3603    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3605        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3606        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3607
3608    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3609        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3610
3611    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3612        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3613        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3614        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3615        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3616
3617        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3618        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3619            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3620            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3621            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3622            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3623        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3624            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3625                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3626            else:
3627                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3628        else:
3629            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3630        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3631
3632    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3633        table = expression.this
3634        table_alias = ""
3635
3636        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3637        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3638            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3639            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3640
3641        this = self.sql(table)
3642        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3643        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3644        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3645        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3646        if returning:
3647            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3648
3649        sep = self.sep()
3650
3651        return self.prepend_ctes(
3652            expression,
3653            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3654        )
3655
3656    @unsupported_args("format")
3657    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3658        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3659
3660    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3661        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3662            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3663            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3664
3665        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3666        if not fmt:
3667            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3668            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3669
3670        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3671
3672    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3674        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3675        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3676        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3677        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3678
3679    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3681        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3682        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3683        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3684
3685    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3686        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3687
3688    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3689        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3690
3691    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3692    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3693        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3694        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3695        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3697        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3698        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3699        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3700
3701    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3702        return ""
3703
3704    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3705        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3706        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3707        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3708        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3709        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3710
3711    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3713        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3714
3715        if having:
3716            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3717
3718        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3719
3720    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3721        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3722        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3723        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3724        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3725        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3726        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3727        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3728        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3729        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3730        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3731        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3732        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3733        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3734
3735    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3736        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3737        if key_block_size:
3738            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3739
3740        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3741        if using:
3742            return f"USING {using}"
3743
3744        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3745        if parser:
3746            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3747
3748        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3749        if comment:
3750            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3751
3752        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3753        if visible is not None:
3754            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3755
3756        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3757        if engine_attr:
3758            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3759
3760        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3761        if secondary_engine_attr:
3762            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3763
3764        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3765        return ""
3766
3767    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3768        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3769        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3770
3771    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3773        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3775        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3776        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3777        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3778        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3779        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3780        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3781        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3782        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3783
3784    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3785        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3786            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3787
3788        case = exp.Case().when(
3789            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3790            expression.args["true"],
3791            copy=False,
3792        )
3793        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3794        if else_cond:
3795            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3796
3797        return self.sql(case)
3798
3799    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3801        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3802        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3803        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3804        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3805        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3806
3807    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3808        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3809
3810    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3812
3813    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3814        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3815        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3816        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3817        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3818        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3819        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3820
3821    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3823        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3824        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3825
3826    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3828        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3829        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3830
3831    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3832        arg = expression.this
3833        if not arg.type:
3834            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3835
3836            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3837
3838        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3839            return self.sql(arg)
3840
3841        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3842        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3843
3844    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3845        this = expression.this
3846        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3847            return self.sql(this)
3848
3849        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3850
3851    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3852        this = expression.this
3853        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3854            return self.sql(this)
3855
3856        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3857
3858    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3859        this = expression.this
3860        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3861
3862        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3863            return self.sql(
3864                exp.cast(
3865                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3866                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3867                )
3868            )
3869
3870        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3871            return self.sql(this)
3872
3873        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3874
3875    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3876        return self.sql(
3877            exp.func(
3878                "DATEDIFF",
3879                expression.this,
3880                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3881                "day",
3882            )
3883        )
3884
3885    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3886        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3887            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3888
3889        unit = expression.text("unit")
3890        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3891            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3892
3893        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3894
3895    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3896        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3897
3898        return self.func(
3899            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3900        )
3901
3902    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3903        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3904            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3905            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3906            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3907            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3908
3909        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3910
3911        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3912        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3913            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3914
3915        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3916
3917    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3918        expression.set(
3919            "expressions",
3920            [
3921                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3922                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3923                else e
3924                for e in expression.expressions
3925            ],
3926        )
3927
3928        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3929
3930    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3931        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3932        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3933
3934        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3935
3936    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3937        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3938        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3939
3940        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3941
3942        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3943        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3944
3945        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3946        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3947
3948        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3949        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3950
3951        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3952        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3953
3954        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3955
3956    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3957    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3958    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3959        to = expression.this
3960        value = expression.expression
3961        style = expression.args.get("style")
3962        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3963        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3964
3965        if not to or not value:
3966            return ""
3967
3968        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3969        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3970            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3971
3972        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3973        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3974
3975        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3976        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3977            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3978
3979            style_value = style.name
3980            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3981            if not converted_style:
3982                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3983
3984            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3985
3986            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3987                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3988            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3989                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3990            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3991                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3992            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3993                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3994
3995        if not transformed:
3996            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3997
3998        return self.sql(transformed)
3999
4000    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4001        this = expression.this
4002        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4003            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4004            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4005
4006        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4007            return f".{this}"
4008
4009        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4010        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4011
4012    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4013        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4014        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4015
4016    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4017        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4018            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4019
4020            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4021
4022        return expression
4023
4024    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4025        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4026            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4027            mods = sorted(
4028                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4029                key=lambda x: 0
4030                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4031                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4032            )
4033
4034            if mods:
4035                mod = mods[0]
4036                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4037                this.meta["inline"] = True
4038                mod.this.replace(this)
4039                return self.sql(expression.this)
4040
4041            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4042
4043            if agg_func:
4044                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4045
4046        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4047
4048    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4049        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4050        if self.pretty:
4051            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4052        return string
4053
4054    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4055        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4056
4057        if expression.expressions:
4058            upper = option.upper()
4059
4060            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4061            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4062
4063            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4064            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4065            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4066            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4067
4068        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4069
4070        if not value:
4071            return option
4072
4073        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4074
4075        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4076
4077    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4078        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4079        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4080            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4081            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4082            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4083        else:
4084            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4085            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4086            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4087
4088        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4089        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4090
4091        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4092        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4093
4094        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4095        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4096
4097        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4098        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4099
4100        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4101
4102    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4104        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4105
4106        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4107        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4108        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4109        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4110
4111        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4112        params = self.expressions(
4113            expression,
4114            key="params",
4115            sep=sep,
4116            new_line=True,
4117            skip_last=True,
4118            skip_first=True,
4119            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4120        )
4121
4122        if params:
4123            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4124                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4125            elif not self.pretty:
4126                params = f" {params}"
4127
4128        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4129
4130    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4131        return ""
4132
4133    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4134        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4135        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4136        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4137        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4138        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4139
4140        if filter_col or retention_period:
4141            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4142
4143        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4144
4145    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4146        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4147    ) -> str:
4148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4150        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4151        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4152
4153    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4155        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4156        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4157
4158    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4159        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4160
4161    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4163        expr = expression.expression
4164
4165        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4166            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4167            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4168        else:
4169            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4170
4171        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4172
4173    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4174        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4175            return self.sql(expression.this)
4176
4177        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4178
4179    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4180        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4181        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4182
4183        if lower and upper:
4184            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4185        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4186
4187    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4188        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4189        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4190        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4191        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4192        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4193        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4194
4195        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4196
4197    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4198        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4199
4200        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4201        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4202            fill_pattern = "' '"
4203
4204        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4205
4206    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4207        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4208        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4209
4210    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4211        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4212
4213        parent = expression.parent
4214        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4215            parent = parent.parent
4216
4217        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4218            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4219
4220        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4221            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4222
4223        return self.sql(generate_series)
4224
4225    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4226        exprs = expression.expressions
4227        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4228            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4229        else:
4230            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4231
4232        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4233
4234    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4235        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4236            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4237
4238        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4239        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4240        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4241
4242        if source_tz and timestamp:
4243            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4244                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4245            )
4246
4247        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4248
4249        return self.sql(expr)
4250
4251    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4253        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4254
4255        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4256
4257        if _with is None:
4258            with_sql = ""
4259        elif not _with:
4260            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4261        else:
4262            with_sql = " WITH"
4263
4264        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4265
4266        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4267
4268    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4269        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4270            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4271
4272        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4273        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4274        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4275
4276        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4277        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4278
4279        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4280
4281    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4282        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4283        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4284        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4285        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4286        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4287
4288    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4289        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4290        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4291        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4292        return res
4293
4294    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4295        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4296        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4297        empty = (
4298            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4299            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4300            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4301        )
4302
4303        error = expression.args.get("error")
4304        error = (
4305            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4306            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4307            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4308        )
4309
4310        if error and empty:
4311            error = (
4312                f"{empty} {error}"
4313                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4314                else f"{error} {empty}"
4315            )
4316            empty = ""
4317
4318        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4319
4320        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4321
4322    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4324        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4325
4326        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4327        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4328
4329        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4330        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4331
4332        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4333
4334        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4335
4336    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4337        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4338
4339        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4340            parent = expression.parent
4341            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4342                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4343                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4344            else:
4345                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4346                this = expression.this
4347                this_sql = (
4348                    self.expressions(this)
4349                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4350                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4351                )
4352                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4353
4354        return array_agg
4355
4356    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4358        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4359
4360        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4361
4362    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4363        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4364
4365        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4366        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4367
4368        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4369        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4370
4371        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4372
4373        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4374
4375        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4376
4377    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4379        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4380        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4381
4382        return f"{this}{columns}"
4383
4384    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4386
4387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4388        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4389
4390        return f"{kind}{this}"
4391
4392    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4393        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4394        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4395            func = f"*{func}"
4396
4397        return func
4398
4399    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4401        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4402        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4403        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4404        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4405
4406        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
639    def __init__(
640        self,
641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
642        identify: str | bool = False,
643        normalize: bool = False,
644        pad: int = 2,
645        indent: int = 2,
646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
649        leading_comma: bool = False,
650        max_text_width: int = 80,
651        comments: bool = True,
652        dialect: DialectType = None,
653    ):
654        import sqlglot
655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
656
657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
658        self.identify = identify
659        self.normalize = normalize
660        self.pad = pad
661        self._indent = indent
662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
666        self.comments = comments
667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
668
669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
670        self.normalize_functions = (
671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
672        )
673
674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
677        )
678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
679
680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
681
682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
686        """
687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
688
689        Args:
690            expression: The syntax tree.
691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
692                it is safer to copy.
693
694        Returns:
695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
696        """
697        if copy:
698            expression = expression.copy()
699
700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
701
702        self.unsupported_messages = []
703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
704
705        if self.pretty:
706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
707
708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
709            return sql
710
711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
713                logger.warning(msg)
714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
716
717        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
721        if (
722            not expression.parent
723            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
724            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
725        ):
726            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
727
728            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
729
730        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
731            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
732
733            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
734
735        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
737    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
739            raise UnsupportedError(message)
740        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
742    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
743        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
745    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
746        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
748    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
749        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
750        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
751        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
753    def maybe_comment(
754        self,
755        sql: str,
756        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
757        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
758        separated: bool = False,
759    ) -> str:
760        comments = (
761            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
762            if self.comments
763            else None
764        )
765
766        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
767            return sql
768
769        comments_sql = " ".join(
770            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
771        )
772
773        if not comments_sql:
774            return sql
775
776        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
777
778        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
779            return (
780                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
781                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
782                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
783            )
784
785        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
787    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
788        this_sql = (
789            self.sql(expression)
790            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
791            else self.sql(expression, "this")
792        )
793        if not this_sql:
794            return "()"
795
796        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
797        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
799    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
800        original = self.identify
801        self.identify = False
802        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
803        self.identify = original
804        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
806    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
807        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
808            return name.upper()
809        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
810            return name.lower()
811        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
813    def indent(
814        self,
815        sql: str,
816        level: int = 0,
817        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
818        skip_first: bool = False,
819        skip_last: bool = False,
820    ) -> str:
821        if not self.pretty or not sql:
822            return sql
823
824        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
825        lines = sql.split("\n")
826
827        return "\n".join(
828            (
829                line
830                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
831                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
832            )
833            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
834        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
836    def sql(
837        self,
838        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
839        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
840        comment: bool = True,
841    ) -> str:
842        if not expression:
843            return ""
844
845        if isinstance(expression, str):
846            return expression
847
848        if key:
849            value = expression.args.get(key)
850            if value:
851                return self.sql(value)
852            return ""
853
854        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
855
856        if callable(transform):
857            sql = transform(self, expression)
858        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
859            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
860
861            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
862                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
864                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
865            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
866                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
867            else:
868                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
869        else:
870            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
871
872        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
874    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
875        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
877        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
879    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
880        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
882        options = expression.args.get("options")
883        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
884        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
885        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
886        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
889    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
890        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
891            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
892        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
893        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
895    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
896        return ".".join(
897            self.sql(part)
898            for part in (
899                expression.args.get("catalog"),
900                expression.args.get("db"),
901                expression.args.get("table"),
902                expression.args.get("this"),
903            )
904            if part
905        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
907    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
908        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
909
910        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
911            join_mark = ""
912            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
913
914        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
916    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
919        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
920        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
922    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
923        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
925        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
926        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
927        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
928        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
929        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
930        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
931
932        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
933            kind = ""
934
935        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
937    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
939        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
940        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
944        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
945            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
946        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
947            persisted = " PERSISTED"
948        else:
949            persisted = ""
950        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
952    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
953        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
955    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
956        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
957            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
958        else:
959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
960
961        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
963    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
964        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
965    ) -> str:
966        this = ""
967        if expression.this is not None:
968            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
969            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
970
971        start = expression.args.get("start")
972        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
973        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
974        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
975        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
976        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
977        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
978        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
979        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
980        cycle_sql = ""
981
982        if cycle is not None:
983            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
984            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
985
986        sequence_opts = ""
987        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
988            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
989            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
990
991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
992        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
993
994        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
 996    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1000        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1001        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1003    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1004        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1005    ) -> str:
1006        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1008    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1011    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1016        if desc is not None:
1017            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1018        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1023        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1024        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1025        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1026        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1027        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1028        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1030    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1031        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1033    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1035        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1036        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1037        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1038
1039        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1040
1041        properties_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1043            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1044        ):
1045            properties_sql = self.sql(
1046                exp.Properties(
1047                    expressions=[
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1049                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1050                    ]
1051                )
1052            )
1053
1054            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1055                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1056            elif not self.pretty:
1057                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1058                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1059
1060        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1061        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1062
1063        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        if expression_sql:
1065            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1066
1067            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1068                postalias_props_sql = ""
1069                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1070                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1071                        exp.Properties(
1072                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1073                        ),
1074                        wrapped=False,
1075                    )
1076                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1077                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1078
1079        postindex_props_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1081            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1082                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1083                wrapped=False,
1084                prefix=" ",
1085            )
1086
1087        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1088        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1089        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1090
1091        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1092        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1093        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1094
1095        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1096        if clustered is None:
1097            clustered_sql = ""
1098        elif clustered:
1099            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100        else:
1101            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1102
1103        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1105            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1107                sep=" ",
1108                prefix=" ",
1109                wrapped=False,
1110            )
1111
1112        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1113
1114        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1116            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1117                exp.Properties(
1118                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1119                ),
1120                sep=" ",
1121                prefix=" ",
1122                wrapped=False,
1123            )
1124
1125        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1126        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1127        no_schema_binding = (
1128            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1129        )
1130
1131        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1132        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1133
1134        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1137    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1138        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1139        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1140        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1141        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1142        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1143        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1144        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1145        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1146        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1147        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1148
1149        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1150        if cache is None:
1151            cache_str = ""
1152        elif cache is True:
1153            cache_str = " CACHE"
1154        else:
1155            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1156
1157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1158        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1159
1160        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1162    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1165        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1166        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1168    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1169        style = expression.args.get("style")
1170        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1173        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1175    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1176        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1177        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1179    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1180        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1181        if with_:
1182            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1183        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1185    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1186        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        recursive = (
1188            "RECURSIVE "
1189            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1190            else ""
1191        )
1192
1193        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1195    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1196        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1197
1198        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1199        if materialized is False:
1200            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1201        elif materialized:
1202            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1203
1204        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1206    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1209        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1210
1211        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1212            columns = ""
1213            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1214
1215        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1216            alias = self._next_name()
1217
1218        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1220    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1223            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1224        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1226    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1229            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1230        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1232    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1235            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1236        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1238    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1241
1242        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1245        else:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1248
1249        if escape:
1250            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1251            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1252        else:
1253            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1254            escape_sql = ""
1255
1256        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1257            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1258
1259        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1261    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1262        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1263        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1265    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1269        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1271    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1272        nested = ""
1273        values = ""
1274        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275
1276        type_value = expression.this
1277        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1278            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        else:
1280            type_sql = (
1281                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1282                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1283                else type_value
1284            )
1285
1286        if interior:
1287            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1288                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1289                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1290                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1291                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1292                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1293            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1294                nested = f" {interior}"
1295            else:
1296                nested = f"({interior})"
1297
1298        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1299        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1301            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1302        ):
1303            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1304
1305        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1307    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1308        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1309        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1310        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1311        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1313    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1316        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1317        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1318        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1319        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1322        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1323        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1324        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1325        if self.RETURNING_END:
1326            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1327        else:
1328            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1329        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1331    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1334        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1335        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1336        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1337        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1338        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1339        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1340        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1341        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1342        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1343        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1344        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1345        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1346        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1348    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1349        op_type = type(expression)
1350        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1351
1352        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1353        if (
1354            distinct is False
1355            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1356            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1357        ):
1358            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1359
1360        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1361
1362        if distinct is None:
1363            distinct = default_distinct
1364            if distinct is None:
1365                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1366
1367        if distinct is default_distinct:
1368            kind = ""
1369        else:
1370            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1371
1372        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1373        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1375    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1376        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1377            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1378            order = expression.args.get("order")
1379
1380            if limit or order:
1381                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1382
1383                if limit:
1384                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1385                if order:
1386                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1387                return self.sql(select)
1388
1389        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1390        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1391
1392        while stack:
1393            node = stack.pop()
1394
1395            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1396                stack.append(node.expression)
1397                stack.append(
1398                    self.maybe_comment(
1399                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1400                    )
1401                )
1402                stack.append(node.this)
1403            else:
1404                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1405
1406        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1407        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1408        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1410    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1411        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1412        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1413        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1414        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1415        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1416            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1417        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1418        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1420    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1421        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1422            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1423            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1424            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1425
1426        agg = expression.this
1427        agg_arg = agg.this
1428        cond = expression.expression.this
1429        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1430        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1432    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1433        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1434            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1435            return ""
1436
1437        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1439    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1441        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1442        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1443        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1444        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1445        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1446        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1447        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1448        if include:
1449            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1450        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1451        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1452        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1453        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1454        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1455        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1456
1457        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1459    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1460        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1461        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1462        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1463        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1465        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1466        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1467
1468        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1469
1470        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1471        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1473    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1474        text = expression.name
1475        lower = text.lower()
1476        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1477        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1478        if (
1479            expression.quoted
1480            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1481            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1482            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1483        ):
1484            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1485        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1487    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1488        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1489        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1490            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1491
1492        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1494    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1495        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1496        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1497            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1498        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1500    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1501        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1502        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1503        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1504        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1505        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1507    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1508        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1509        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1511    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1512        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1514    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1515        root_properties = []
1516        with_properties = []
1517
1518        for p in expression.expressions:
1519            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1520            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1521                with_properties.append(p)
1522            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1523                root_properties.append(p)
1524
1525        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1526        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1527
1528        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1529            with_props = " " + with_props
1530
1531        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1533    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1534        if properties.expressions:
1535            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1536        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1538    def properties(
1539        self,
1540        properties: exp.Properties,
1541        prefix: str = "",
1542        sep: str = ", ",
1543        suffix: str = "",
1544        wrapped: bool = True,
1545    ) -> str:
1546        if properties.expressions:
1547            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1548            if expressions:
1549                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1550                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1551        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1553    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1554        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1556    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1557        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1558        for p in properties.expressions:
1559            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1560            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1561                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1562            else:
1563                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1564
1565        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1567    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1568        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1569            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1570        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1572    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1573        property_cls = expression.__class__
1574        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1575            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1576
1577        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1578        if not property_name:
1579            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1580
1581        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1583    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1584        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1585            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1586            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1587
1588            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1589            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1590                like = f"({like})"
1591
1592            return like
1593
1594        if expression.expressions:
1595            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1596
1597        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1598        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1600    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1601        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1602        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1603        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1605    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1606        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1607        local = expression.args.get("local")
1608        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1609        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1610        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1611        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1612        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1614    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1615        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1617        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1619    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1620        if expression.args.get("default"):
1621            property = "DEFAULT"
1622        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1623            property = "ON"
1624        else:
1625            property = "OFF"
1626        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1628    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1629        if expression.args.get("no"):
1630            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631        if expression.args.get("default"):
1632            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1633
1634        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1635        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1637    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1638        default = expression.args.get("default")
1639        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1640        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1641        if default or minimum or maximum:
1642            if default:
1643                prop = "DEFAULT"
1644            elif minimum:
1645                prop = "MINIMUM"
1646            else:
1647                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1648            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1649        units = expression.args.get("units")
1650        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1651        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1653    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1654        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1655        always = expression.args.get("always")
1656        default = expression.args.get("default")
1657        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1658        never = expression.args.get("never")
1659
1660        if autotemp is not None:
1661            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1662        elif always:
1663            prop = "ALWAYS"
1664        elif default:
1665            prop = "DEFAULT"
1666        elif manual:
1667            prop = "MANUAL"
1668        elif never:
1669            prop = "NEVER"
1670        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1672    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1673        no = expression.args.get("no")
1674        no = " NO" if no else ""
1675        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1676        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1677        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1678        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1679        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1681    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1682        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1683            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1684        if expression.this:
1685            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1687            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1688
1689        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1690        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1691        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1693    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695
1696        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1697        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1698            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1699        else:
1700            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1701
1702        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1704    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1705        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1706        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1707        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1708        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1709        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1710        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1711        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1713    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1714        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1715        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1716        statistics_sql = ""
1717        if statistics is not None:
1718            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1719        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1721    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1723        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1724        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1725        data_consistency = (
1726            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1727        )
1728        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1729        retention_period = (
1730            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1731        )
1732
1733        if this:
1734            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1735        else:
1736            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1737
1738        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1739
1740        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1742    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1743        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1744        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1745
1746        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1747            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1748        else:
1749            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1750
1751        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1752        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1753        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1754        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1755        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1756        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1757        if is_function:
1758            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1759        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1760
1761        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1762        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1763        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1764        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1765        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1766        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1767        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1768        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1769
1770        if self.RETURNING_END:
1771            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1772        else:
1773            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1774
1775        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1776        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1777        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1778        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1779
1780        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1781        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1782
1783        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1784        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1786    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1789    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1791        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1793        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1794        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1796    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1797        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1799    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1800        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1802    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1803        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1804
1805        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1806        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1807
1808        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1809        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1810        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1811
1812        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1813        if expressions:
1814            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1815            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1816
1817        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1819    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1820        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1822    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1823        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1824        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1825        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1826        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1827        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1828        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1829        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1830        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1831        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1832        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1833        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1834        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1835        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1837    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1838        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1840    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1841        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1842        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1843        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1844        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1846    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1849        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1850        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1852    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1853        return ".".join(
1854            self.sql(part)
1855            for part in (
1856                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1857                expression.args.get("db"),
1858                expression.args.get("this"),
1859            )
1860            if part is not None
1861        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1863    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1864        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1865        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1866        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1867        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1868        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1869        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1870        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1871        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1872
1873        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1874        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1875            sample_pre_alias = sample
1876            sample_post_alias = ""
1877        else:
1878            sample_pre_alias = ""
1879            sample_post_alias = sample
1880
1881        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1882        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1883        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1884        joins = self.indent(
1885            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1886        )
1887        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1888
1889        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1890        if file_format:
1891            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1892            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1893            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1894
1895        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1896        if ordinality:
1897            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1898            alias = ""
1899
1900        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1901        if when:
1902            table = f"{table} {when}"
1903
1904        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1905        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1906
1907        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1908        if rows_from:
1909            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1910
1911        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1913    def tablesample_sql(
1914        self,
1915        expression: exp.TableSample,
1916        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1917    ) -> str:
1918        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1919        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1920        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1921        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1922        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1923        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1924        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1925        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1926        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1927
1928        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1929        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1930            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1931
1932        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1933        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1934            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1935
1936        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1937        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1938            expr = f"({expr})"
1939
1940        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1942    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944
1945        if expression.this:
1946            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947            if not expressions:
1948                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1949
1950            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1951            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1952            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1953            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1954            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1955
1956        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1957        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1958        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1959
1960        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1961
1962        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1963        if include_nulls is not None:
1964            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1965        else:
1966            nulls = ""
1967
1968        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1969        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1970        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1972    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1973        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1974        kind = expression.text("kind")
1975        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1976        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1978    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1979        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1981    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1983        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1985        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1987        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1988        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1989        if self.RETURNING_END:
1990            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1991        else:
1992            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1993        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1996    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1997        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1998
1999        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2000        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2001            args = self.expressions(expression)
2002            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2003            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2004            values = (
2005                f"({values})"
2006                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2007                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2008                else values
2009            )
2010            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2011
2012        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2013        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2014        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2015
2016        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2017
2018        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2019            row = tup.expressions
2020
2021            if i == 0 and column_names:
2022                row = [
2023                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2024                ]
2025
2026            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2027
2028        if self.pretty:
2029            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2030            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2031            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2032            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2033            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2034
2035        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2036        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2037        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2039    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2040        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2042    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2043    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2044        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2045        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2046        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2048    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2049        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2051    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2052        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2053        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2055    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2057        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2059    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2061        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2063    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2064        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2065        if group_by_all is True:
2066            modifier = " ALL"
2067        elif group_by_all is False:
2068            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2069        else:
2070            modifier = ""
2071
2072        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2073
2074        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2075        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2076        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2077
2078        groupings = csv(
2079            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2080            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2081            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2082            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2083            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2084        )
2085
2086        if (
2087            expression.expressions
2088            and groupings
2089            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2090        ):
2091            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2092
2093        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2095    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2096        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2097        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2099    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2100        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2101        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2102        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2103        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2104        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2105        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2107    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2108        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2110    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2111        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2112            side = None
2113        else:
2114            side = expression.side
2115
2116        op_sql = " ".join(
2117            op
2118            for op in (
2119                expression.method,
2120                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2121                side,
2122                expression.kind,
2123                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2124            )
2125            if op
2126        )
2127        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2128        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2129        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2130        using = expression.args.get("using")
2131
2132        if not on_sql and using:
2133            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2134
2135        this = expression.this
2136        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2137
2138        if on_sql:
2139            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2140            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2141            if using:
2142                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2143            else:
2144                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2145        elif not op_sql:
2146            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2147                return f" {this_sql}"
2148
2149            return f", {this_sql}"
2150
2151        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2152            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2153
2154        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2156    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2157        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2158        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2159        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2161    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2162        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2163
2164        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2165        if cross_apply is True:
2166            op = "INNER JOIN "
2167        elif cross_apply is False:
2168            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2169        else:
2170            op = ""
2171
2172        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2174    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176
2177        if expression.args.get("view"):
2178            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2179            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2180            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2181            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2182            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2183            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2184
2185        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2186        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2187        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2189    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2191
2192        args = [
2193            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2194            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2195            if e
2196        ]
2197
2198        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2199        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2200        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2201        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2202
2203        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2205    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207        value = expression.expression
2208        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2209        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2210        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2211        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2213    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2214        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2215        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2217        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2218        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2219        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2220        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2221        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2223    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2224        expressions = (
2225            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2226        )
2227        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2228        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2230    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2231        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2233    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2234        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2235            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2236            return ""
2237
2238        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2240        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2241        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2242
2243        if wait is not None:
2244            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2245                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2246            else:
2247                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2248
2249        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2251    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2252        text = expression.this or ""
2253        if expression.is_string:
2254            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2255        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2257    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2258        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2259            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2260            text = "".join(
2261                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2262            )
2263
2264        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2265            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2266        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2268    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2269        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2270        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2271        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2272        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2273        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2274        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2275        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2276        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2277        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2278        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2279        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2281    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2282        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2284    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2285        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2287    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2290        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2291        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2293    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2294        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2295        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2296        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2297        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2298        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2299        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2300        interpolated_values = [
2301            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2302            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2303        ]
2304        interpolate = (
2305            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2306        )
2307        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2309    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2310        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2312    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2313        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2315    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2316        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2318    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2319        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2320        asc = not desc
2321
2322        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2323        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2324        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2325        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2326        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2327
2328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2329
2330        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2331        nulls_sort_change = ""
2332        if nulls_first and (
2333            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2334        ):
2335            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2336        elif (
2337            nulls_last
2338            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2339            and not nulls_are_last
2340        ):
2341            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2342
2343        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2344        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2345            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2346            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2347                self.unsupported(
2348                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2349                )
2350                nulls_sort_change = ""
2351            elif (
2352                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2353                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2354                and (
2355                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2356                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2357                )
2358            ):
2359                self.unsupported(
2360                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2361                )
2362                nulls_sort_change = ""
2363            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2364                if expression.this.is_int:
2365                    self.unsupported(
2366                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2367                    )
2368                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2369                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2370                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2371                nulls_sort_change = ""
2372
2373        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2374        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2375
2376        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2378    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2379        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2380        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2381
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383
2384        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2386    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2387        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2388        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2389        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2390        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2391        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2392        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2393        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2394        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2395        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2396        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2397        definition_sqls = [
2398            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2399            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2400        ]
2401        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2402        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2403        body = "".join(
2404            (
2405                partition,
2406                order,
2407                measures,
2408                rows,
2409                after,
2410                pattern,
2411                define,
2412            )
2413        )
2414        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2415        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2416        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2418    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2419        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2420
2421        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2422            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2423        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2424            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2425
2426        return csv(
2427            *sqls,
2428            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2429            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2430            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2431            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2432            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2433            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2434            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2435            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2436            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2437            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2438            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2439            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2440            self.options_modifier(expression),
2441            sep="",
2442        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2444    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2445        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2446        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2448    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2449        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2451    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2452        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2453    ) -> t.List[str]:
2454        return [
2455            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2456            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2457        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2459    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2460        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2461        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2462        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2464    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2465        into = expression.args.get("into")
2466        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2467            into.pop()
2468
2469        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2470        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2471        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2473
2474        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2475        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2476            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2477            limit.pop()
2478        else:
2479            top = ""
2480
2481        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2482
2483        if kind:
2484            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2485                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2486            else:
2487                if kind == "STRUCT":
2488                    expressions = self.expressions(
2489                        sqls=[
2490                            self.sql(
2491                                exp.Struct(
2492                                    expressions=[
2493                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2494                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2495                                        else e
2496                                        for e in expression.expressions
2497                                    ]
2498                                )
2499                            )
2500                        ]
2501                    )
2502                kind = ""
2503
2504        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2505        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2506        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2507        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2508        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2509            expression,
2510            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2511            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2512            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2513        )
2514
2515        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2516
2517        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2518            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2519                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2520            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2521                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2522            else:
2523                table_kind = ""
2524            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2525
2526        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2528    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2531        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2533    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2534        if expression.expressions:
2535            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2536        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2538    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2539        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2540        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2541        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2542        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2543        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2544        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2545        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2547    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2551    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        kind = expression.text("kind")
2554        if kind:
2555            kind = f"{kind}."
2556        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2558    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2559        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2561    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2562        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2563        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2564        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2565        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2566            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2567
2568            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2569            expression.set("sample", None)
2570
2571        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2572        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2573        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2575    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2576        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2577        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2579    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2580        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2581
2582        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2583        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2584
2585        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2586            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2587                alias.append("columns", offset)
2588
2589        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2590            columns = alias.columns
2591            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2592        else:
2593            alias = self.sql(alias)
2594
2595        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2596        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2597            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2598        else:
2599            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2600                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2601            elif offset:
2602                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2603            else:
2604                suffix = alias
2605
2606        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2608    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2609        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2611    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2612        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2613        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2615    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2618        order = expression.args.get("order")
2619        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2620        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2621        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2622        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2623
2624        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2625
2626        first = expression.args.get("first")
2627        if first is None:
2628            first = ""
2629        else:
2630            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2631
2632        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2633            return f"{this} {alias}"
2634
2635        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2636        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2638    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2639        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2640        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2642    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2644        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2645        end = (
2646            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2647            or "CURRENT ROW"
2648        )
2649        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2651    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2653        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2654        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2656    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2659        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2660        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2662    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2663        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2664    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2665        return apply_index_offset(
2666            expression.this,
2667            expression.expressions,
2668            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2669        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2671    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2672        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2673        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2674        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2676    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2677        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2679    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2681        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2682            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2683                this = self.wrap(this)
2684            return f"ANY{this}"
2685        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2687    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2688        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2690    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2692        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2693
2694        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2695            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2696            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2697
2698        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2699
2700        if default:
2701            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2702
2703        statements.append("END")
2704
2705        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2706            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2707
2708        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2710    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2713        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2715    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2716        order = expression.args.get("order")
2717        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2718        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2720    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2721        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2722        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2723        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2725    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2726        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2727
2728        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2729            func_name = "LTRIM"
2730        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2731            func_name = "RTRIM"
2732        else:
2733            func_name = "TRIM"
2734
2735        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2737    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2738        args = expression.expressions
2739        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2740            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2741
2742        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2743            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2744
2745        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2746            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2747
2748        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2750    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2751        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2752
2753        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2754        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2755            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2756
2757        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2759    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2760        return self.func(
2761            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2762        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2764    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2765        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2766        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2768    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2769        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2770        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2771        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2772        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2773        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2774        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2775        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2776        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2778    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2779        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2780        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2781        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2782        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2784    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2785        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2787    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2788        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2789        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2790        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2792    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2795    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2796        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2797
2798        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2799            path = self.escape_str(path)
2800
2801        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2802            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2803
2804        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2806    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2807        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2808            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2809            if not callable(transform):
2810                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2811                return ""
2812
2813            return transform(self, expression)
2814
2815        if isinstance(expression, int):
2816            return str(expression)
2817
2818        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2819            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2820            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2821        else:
2822            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2823            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2824
2825        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2827    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2828        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2830    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2831        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2832        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2833
2834        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2835        if unique_keys is not None:
2836            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2837        else:
2838            unique_keys = ""
2839
2840        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2841        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2842        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2843        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2844
2845        return self.func(
2846            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2847            *expression.expressions,
2848            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2849        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2851    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2852        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2854    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2855        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2856        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2857        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2858        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2859        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2860        return self.func(
2861            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2862        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2864    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2866        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2867        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2868        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2869        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2870        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2871        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2872        return self.func(
2873            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2874            this,
2875            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2876        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2878    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2879        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2880        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2881        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2882
2883        if nested_schema:
2884            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2885
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2888        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2889        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2891    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2892        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2894    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2896        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2897        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2898        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2899        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2900        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2901        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2902        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2903        return self.func(
2904            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2905        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2907    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2910        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2911        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2912        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2913        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2915    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2918        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2919        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2920        with_ = (
2921            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2922            if expressions
2923            else ""
2924        )
2925        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2927    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2928        query = expression.args.get("query")
2929        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2930        field = expression.args.get("field")
2931        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2932
2933        if query:
2934            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2935        elif unnest:
2936            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2937        elif field:
2938            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2939        else:
2940            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2941
2942        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2944    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2945        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2947    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2948        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2949        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2950            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2951        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2952
2953        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2954            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2955            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2956
2957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        if this:
2959            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2960            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2961
2962        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2964    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2965        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2967    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2969        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2970        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2971        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2972        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2973        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2975    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2976        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2977        parent = expression.parent
2978        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2979        return self.func(
2980            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2981        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2983    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2984        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2985        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2987    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2988        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2989        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2991        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2993    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2994        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2996    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2997        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2998        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2999        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
3001    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3002        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3003
3004        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3005        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3006
3007        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3008            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3009        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3010            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3011
3012        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3014    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3015        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3017    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3019        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3020        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3022    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3024        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3025        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3027    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3029        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3030        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3032    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3033        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3035    def and_sql(
3036        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3037    ) -> str:
3038        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3040    def or_sql(
3041        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3042    ) -> str:
3043        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3045    def xor_sql(
3046        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3047    ) -> str:
3048        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3050    def connector_sql(
3051        self,
3052        expression: exp.Connector,
3053        op: str,
3054        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3055    ) -> str:
3056        if stack is not None:
3057            if expression.expressions:
3058                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3059            else:
3060                stack.append(expression.right)
3061                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3062                    for comment in expression.comments:
3063                        if comment:
3064                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3065                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3066            return op
3067
3068        stack = [expression]
3069        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3070        ops = set()
3071
3072        while stack:
3073            node = stack.pop()
3074            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3075                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3076            else:
3077                sql = self.sql(node)
3078                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3079                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3080                else:
3081                    sqls.append(sql)
3082
3083        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3084        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3086    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3089    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3090        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3092    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3093        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3095    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3098    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3101    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3104    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3105        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3106        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3107        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3108        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3109        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3110        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3111        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3113    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3114        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3117    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3118        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3119            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3120        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3122    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3125    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3127        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3128        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3129        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3130        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3131        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3133    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3135        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3136        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3137        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3138        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3139        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3140        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3141        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3142        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3144    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3145        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3146        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3147        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3148        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3149
3150        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3151            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3152
3153        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3155    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3156        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3158    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3159        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3160        if chain is not None:
3161            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3162
3163        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3165    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3166        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3167        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3168        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3170    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3172
3173        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3174        if dtype:
3175            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3176            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3177            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3178            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3179            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3180
3181        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3182        if default:
3183            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3184
3185        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3186        if comment:
3187            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3188
3189        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3190        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3191
3192        if not drop and not allow_null:
3193            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3194
3195        if allow_null is not None:
3196            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3197            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3198
3199        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3201    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3204            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3205        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3207    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3208        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3211        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3212        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3214    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3215        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3216            # Remove db from tables
3217            expression = expression.transform(
3218                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3219            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3221        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3223    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3224        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3225        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3226        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3227        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3229    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3230        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3231        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3233    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3234        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3235
3236        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3237            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3238        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3239            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3240        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3241            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3242        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3243            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3244        else:
3245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3246
3247        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3248        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3249        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3250        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3251        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3252        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3253        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3254        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3255
3256        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3258    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3259        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3260            return self.expressions(
3261                expression,
3262                key="actions",
3263                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3264                skip_first=True,
3265            )
3266        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3268    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3269        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3270        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3271        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3273    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3274        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3276    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3277        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3278
3279        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3280            case = exp.case()
3281            for arg in expression.expressions:
3282                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3283            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3284
3285        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3286
3287        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3288        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3289        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3291    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3292        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3294    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3295        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3297    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3298        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3299        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3300        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3301        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3303    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3304        return self.sql(
3305            exp.Cast(
3306                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3307                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3308            )
3309        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3311    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3312        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3313            return self.func(
3314                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3315            )
3316        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3318    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3319        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3320
3321        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3322            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3323
3324        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3325            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3326                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3327
3328        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3329            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3330                return self.sql(
3331                    exp.cast(
3332                        l / r,
3333                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3334                    )
3335                )
3336
3337        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3339    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3340        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3342    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3343        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3345    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3346        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3348    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3351    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3352        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3354    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3355        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3357    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3358        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3360    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3363    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3366    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3369    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3372    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3373        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3374            return self.sql(
3375                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3376            )
3377        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3379    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3382    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3385    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3388    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3391    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3394    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3397    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3398        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3400    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3403    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3406    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3409    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3412    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3415    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3416        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3418    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3419        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3420            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3421            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3422
3423        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3425    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3426        this = expression.this
3427        expr = expression.expression
3428
3429        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3430            this, expr = expr, this
3431        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3432            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3433                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3434
3435            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3436
3437        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3439    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3440        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3441        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3443        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3444        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3446    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3447        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3448        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3449        binary_type = type(expression)
3450
3451        while stack:
3452            node = stack.pop()
3453
3454            if type(node) is binary_type:
3455                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3456                if op_func:
3457                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3458
3459                stack.append(node.right)
3460                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3461                stack.append(node.left)
3462            else:
3463                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3464
3465        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3467    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3468        args = []
3469
3470        for key in expression.arg_types:
3471            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3472
3473            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3474                for value in arg_value:
3475                    args.append(value)
3476            elif arg_value is not None:
3477                args.append(arg_value)
3478
3479        if self.normalize_functions:
3480            name = expression.sql_name()
3481        else:
3482            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3483
3484        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3486    def func(
3487        self,
3488        name: str,
3489        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3490        prefix: str = "(",
3491        suffix: str = ")",
3492        normalize: bool = True,
3493    ) -> str:
3494        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3495        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3497    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3498        arg_sqls = tuple(
3499            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3500        )
3501        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3502            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3503        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3505    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3506        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3508    def format_time(
3509        self,
3510        expression: exp.Expression,
3511        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3512        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3513    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3514        return format_time(
3515            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3516            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3517            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3518        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3520    def expressions(
3521        self,
3522        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3523        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3524        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3525        flat: bool = False,
3526        indent: bool = True,
3527        skip_first: bool = False,
3528        skip_last: bool = False,
3529        sep: str = ", ",
3530        prefix: str = "",
3531        dynamic: bool = False,
3532        new_line: bool = False,
3533    ) -> str:
3534        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3535
3536        if not expressions:
3537            return ""
3538
3539        if flat:
3540            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3541
3542        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3543        result_sqls = []
3544
3545        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3546            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3547            if not sql:
3548                continue
3549
3550            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3551
3552            if self.pretty:
3553                if self.leading_comma:
3554                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3555                else:
3556                    result_sqls.append(
3557                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3558                    )
3559            else:
3560                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3561
3562        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3563            if new_line:
3564                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3565                result_sqls.append("")
3566            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3567        else:
3568            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3569
3570        return (
3571            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3572            if indent
3573            else result_sql
3574        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3576    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3577        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3578        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3579        if flat:
3580            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3581        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3583    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3584        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3585        if not property_name:
3586            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3587        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3589    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3590        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3592    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3593        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3595    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3597        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3598        expressions = (
3599            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3600        )
3601        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3603    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3605        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3606        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3608    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3609        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3611    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3612        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3613        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3614        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3615        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3616
3617        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3618        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3619            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3620            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3621            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3622            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3623        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3624            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3625                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3626            else:
3627                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3628        else:
3629            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3630        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3632    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3633        table = expression.this
3634        table_alias = ""
3635
3636        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3637        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3638            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3639            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3640
3641        this = self.sql(table)
3642        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3643        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3644        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3645        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3646        if returning:
3647            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3648
3649        sep = self.sep()
3650
3651        return self.prepend_ctes(
3652            expression,
3653            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3654        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3656    @unsupported_args("format")
3657    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3658        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3660    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3661        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3662            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3663            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3664
3665        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3666        if not fmt:
3667            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3668            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3669
3670        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3672    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3674        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3675        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3676        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3677        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3679    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3681        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3682        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3683        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3685    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3686        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3688    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3689        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3692    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3693        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3694        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3695        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3697        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3698        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3699        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3701    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3702        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3704    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3705        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3706        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3707        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3708        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3709        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3711    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3713        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3714
3715        if having:
3716            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3717
3718        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3720    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3721        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3722        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3723        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3724        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3725        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3726        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3727        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3728        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3729        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3730        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3731        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3732        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3733        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3735    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3736        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3737        if key_block_size:
3738            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3739
3740        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3741        if using:
3742            return f"USING {using}"
3743
3744        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3745        if parser:
3746            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3747
3748        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3749        if comment:
3750            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3751
3752        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3753        if visible is not None:
3754            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3755
3756        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3757        if engine_attr:
3758            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3759
3760        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3761        if secondary_engine_attr:
3762            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3763
3764        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3765        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3767    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3768        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3769        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3771    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3773        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3775        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3776        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3777        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3778        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3779        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3780        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3781        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3782        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3784    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3785        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3786            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3787
3788        case = exp.Case().when(
3789            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3790            expression.args["true"],
3791            copy=False,
3792        )
3793        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3794        if else_cond:
3795            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3796
3797        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3799    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3801        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3802        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3803        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3804        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3805        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3807    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3808        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3810    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3813    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3814        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3815        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3816        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3817        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3818        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3819        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3821    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3823        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3824        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3826    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3828        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3829        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3831    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3832        arg = expression.this
3833        if not arg.type:
3834            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3835
3836            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3837
3838        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3839            return self.sql(arg)
3840
3841        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3842        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3844    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3845        this = expression.this
3846        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3847            return self.sql(this)
3848
3849        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3851    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3852        this = expression.this
3853        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3854            return self.sql(this)
3855
3856        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3858    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3859        this = expression.this
3860        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3861
3862        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3863            return self.sql(
3864                exp.cast(
3865                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3866                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3867                )
3868            )
3869
3870        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3871            return self.sql(this)
3872
3873        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3875    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3876        return self.sql(
3877            exp.func(
3878                "DATEDIFF",
3879                expression.this,
3880                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3881                "day",
3882            )
3883        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3885    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3886        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3887            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3888
3889        unit = expression.text("unit")
3890        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3891            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3892
3893        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3895    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3896        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3897
3898        return self.func(
3899            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3900        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3902    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3903        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3904            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3905            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3906            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3907            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3908
3909        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3910
3911        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3912        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3913            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3914
3915        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3917    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3918        expression.set(
3919            "expressions",
3920            [
3921                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3922                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3923                else e
3924                for e in expression.expressions
3925            ],
3926        )
3927
3928        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3930    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3931        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3932        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3933
3934        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3936    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3937        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3938        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3939
3940        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3941
3942        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3943        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3944
3945        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3946        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3947
3948        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3949        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3950
3951        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3952        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3953
3954        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3958    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3959        to = expression.this
3960        value = expression.expression
3961        style = expression.args.get("style")
3962        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3963        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3964
3965        if not to or not value:
3966            return ""
3967
3968        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3969        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3970            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3971
3972        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3973        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3974
3975        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3976        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3977            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3978
3979            style_value = style.name
3980            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3981            if not converted_style:
3982                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3983
3984            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3985
3986            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3987                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3988            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3989                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3990            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3991                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3992            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3993                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3994
3995        if not transformed:
3996            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3997
3998        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4054    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4055        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4056
4057        if expression.expressions:
4058            upper = option.upper()
4059
4060            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4061            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4062
4063            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4064            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4065            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4066            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4067
4068        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4069
4070        if not value:
4071            return option
4072
4073        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4074
4075        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4077    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4078        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4079        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4080            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4081            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4082            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4083        else:
4084            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4085            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4086            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4087
4088        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4089        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4090
4091        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4092        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4093
4094        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4095        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4096
4097        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4098        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4099
4100        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4102    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4104        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4105
4106        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4107        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4108        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4109        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4110
4111        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4112        params = self.expressions(
4113            expression,
4114            key="params",
4115            sep=sep,
4116            new_line=True,
4117            skip_last=True,
4118            skip_first=True,
4119            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4120        )
4121
4122        if params:
4123            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4124                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4125            elif not self.pretty:
4126                params = f" {params}"
4127
4128        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4130    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4131        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4133    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4134        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4135        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4136        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4137        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4138        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4139
4140        if filter_col or retention_period:
4141            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4142
4143        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4145    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4146        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4147    ) -> str:
4148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4150        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4151        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4153    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4155        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4156        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4158    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4159        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4161    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4163        expr = expression.expression
4164
4165        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4166            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4167            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4168        else:
4169            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4170
4171        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4173    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4174        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4175            return self.sql(expression.this)
4176
4177        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4179    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4180        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4181        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4182
4183        if lower and upper:
4184            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4185        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4187    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4188        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4189        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4190        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4191        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4192        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4193        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4194
4195        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4197    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4198        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4199
4200        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4201        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4202            fill_pattern = "' '"
4203
4204        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4206    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4207        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4208        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4210    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4211        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4212
4213        parent = expression.parent
4214        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4215            parent = parent.parent
4216
4217        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4218            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4219
4220        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4221            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4222
4223        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4225    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4226        exprs = expression.expressions
4227        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4228            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4229        else:
4230            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4231
4232        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4234    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4235        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4236            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4237
4238        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4239        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4240        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4241
4242        if source_tz and timestamp:
4243            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4244                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4245            )
4246
4247        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4248
4249        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4251    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4253        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4254
4255        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4256
4257        if _with is None:
4258            with_sql = ""
4259        elif not _with:
4260            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4261        else:
4262            with_sql = " WITH"
4263
4264        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4265
4266        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4268    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4269        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4270            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4271
4272        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4273        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4274        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4275
4276        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4277        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4278
4279        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4281    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4282        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4283        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4284        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4285        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4286        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4288    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4289        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4290        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4291        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4292        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4294    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4295        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4296        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4297        empty = (
4298            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4299            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4300            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4301        )
4302
4303        error = expression.args.get("error")
4304        error = (
4305            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4306            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4307            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4308        )
4309
4310        if error and empty:
4311            error = (
4312                f"{empty} {error}"
4313                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4314                else f"{error} {empty}"
4315            )
4316            empty = ""
4317
4318        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4319
4320        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4322    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4324        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4325
4326        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4327        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4328
4329        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4330        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4331
4332        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4333
4334        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4336    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4337        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4338
4339        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4340            parent = expression.parent
4341            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4342                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4343                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4344            else:
4345                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4346                this = expression.this
4347                this_sql = (
4348                    self.expressions(this)
4349                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4350                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4351                )
4352                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4353
4354        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4356    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4358        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4359
4360        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4362    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4363        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4364
4365        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4366        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4367
4368        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4369        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4370
4371        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4372
4373        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4374
4375        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4377    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4379        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4380        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4381
4382        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4384    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4386
4387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4388        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4389
4390        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4392    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4393        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4394        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4395            func = f"*{func}"
4396
4397        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4399    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4401        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4402        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4403        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4404        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4405
4406        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"